Effects of Cartographic Elevation Visualizations and Map-reading Tasks on Eye Movements
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of elevation information on eye movements and performance was investigated in visual search, area selection, and route planning tasks, and the results showed that the visualization of relief information affected the performance and eye movements in the visual search task.
Abstract: Users prefer more realistic visualizations, even though they may be less efficient or even detrimental for a given task. In some previous studies, the evidence has shown that relief shading facilitates the landform interpretation while other studies have provided contrary results. In the present study, the effect of three different visualizations of elevation information on eye movements and performance was investigated in visual search, area selection, and route planning tasks. The results showed that the visualization of relief information affected the performance and eye movements in the visual search task. Overall, the eye movements differed between the search and area selection tasks, as well as between the search and route planning tasks. The result showed that the relief shading did not slow down the performance, either in terms of response time or eye movement measures.
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TL;DR: A new tool for eye-tracking data and their analysis with the use of interactive 3D models easier than by time-consuming, frame-by-frame investigation of captured screen recordings with superimposed scanpaths is described.
Abstract: This paper describes a new tool for eye-tracking data and their analysis with the use of interactive 3D models. This tool helps to analyse interactive 3D models easier than by time-consuming, frame-by-frame investigation of captured screen recordings with superimposed scanpaths. The main function of this tool, called 3DgazeR, is to calculate 3D coordinates (X, Y, Z coordinates of the 3D scene) for individual points of view. These 3D coordinates can be calculated from the values of the position and orientation of a virtual camera and the 2D coordinates of the gaze upon the screen. The functionality of 3DgazeR is introduced in a case study example using Digital Elevation Models as stimuli. The purpose of the case study was to verify the functionality of the tool and discover the most suitable visualization methods for geographic 3D models. Five selected methods are presented in the results section of the paper. Most of the output was created in a Geographic Information System. 3DgazeR works with generic CSV files, SMI eye-tracker, and the low-cost EyeTribe tracker connected with open source application OGAMA. It can compute 3D coordinates from raw data and fixations.
24 citations
Cites background from "Effects of Cartographic Elevation V..."
...One of the first and more complex studies dealing with eye-tracking and the evaluation of 3D maps is the study by Putto et al. (2014)....
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22 Mar 2017
TL;DR: The solution builds upon comprehensively modifying and blending complete DEMs in order to make the generation procedure understandable for the map readers and to facilitate the readers' reliable interpretation of contours throughout the depicted terrain.
Abstract: Due to digitalization and rapid development of collection techniques for elevation data, the emphasis of users' needs for elevation contours has moved from needs of accurate elevation assessment towards needs of perception of landforms. This article introduces a design approach that considers the changed need, and a solution for accordingly generating contours for topographic maps from digital elevation models (DEMs). The solution builds upon comprehensively modifying and blending complete DEMs in order to make the generation procedure understandable for the map readers and to facilitate the readers' reliable interpretation of contours throughout the depicted terrain. The core of the solution is blending lightly and strongly smoothed DEMs according to the Topographic Position Index (TPI) that measures local deviation from surrounding variations of elevations. The solution is built to continuously consider the requirements for different levels of smoothing in areas of uniformly varying and locally ...
14 citations
01 Sep 2015
TL;DR: Mithilfe der Methoden moderner Blickbewegungsmessung kartenexperimentell untersucht, in welcher Form die Blick bewegunde von Kartennutzern durch den Einsatz topographischer Einzelelemente oder aufgelagerter Gitterlinien beeinflusst wird ist.
Abstract: Um einen weitergehenden Einblick in die Prozesse der kartengestutzten Informationsaufnahme zu erhalten und Ruckschlusse fur ein optimiertes Kartendesign ziehen zu konnen, bieten sich moderne Verfahren der Blickbewegungsmessung an. Daten aus der Blickbewegungsmessung werden in sog. „Heatmaps“ visualisiert, die eine unmittelbare und intuitive Auswertung des Blickverhaltens von Kartennutzern ermoglichen. In Heatmaps konnen aggregierte Werte zu der Anzahl und der Dauer von Fixationen wiedergegeben werden, mit denen die Probanden wahrend eines Experiments auf die Kartenbeispiele geblickt haben. Die Entstehung und Auswertung von Heatmaps wird anhand einer Studie zur Wirkung raumlicher Referenzierungsgraphik erlautert. Systematischen raumlichen Verzerrungen, die bspw. uber die Wahrnehmung graphischer Zeichen in das raumliche Gedachtnis gelangen, kann uber den Eintrag von aufliegenden Gitterlinien oder uber die spezifische Aufbereitung (topographischer) Basiskarten entgegengewirkt werden. Um einen weitergehenden Einblick in den Prozess der kartengestutzten Informationsaufnahme zu erhalten und Ruckschlusse fur ein optimiertes Kartendesign ziehen zu konnen, wurde mithilfe der Methoden moderner Blickbewegungsmessung kartenexperimentell untersucht, in welcher Form die Blickbewegung von Kartennutzern durch den Einsatz topographischer Einzelelemente oder auch aufgelagerter Gitterlinien beeinflusst wird. Zwar zeichnen sich im Blickverhalten der Probanden spezifische Muster ab, die auf die Wirkung der Referenzierungsgraphik hinweisen. Die Heatmaps machen jedoch deutlich, dass die Ausbildung von Fixationsarealen mehreren Einflussfaktoren unterliegt, die sich gegenseitig beeinflussen konnen.
8 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the analysis of the content of four journals affiliated by the International Cartographic Association (ICA) is presented, and four features (map medium, reactiveness, method of cartographic presentation, users familiarity with the depicted data) are described based on 103 papers presenting empirical studies.
Abstract: Abstract Revisions of achievements of empirical studies in cartography focused on describing main research themes and diagnosing challenges to be approached. Intriguingly, there is no analysis of maps used as a stimuli in these experiments. In order to fill existing scarcity, this paper presents the analysis of the content of four journals affiliated by the International Cartographic Association. Four features (map medium, reactiveness, method of cartographic presentation, users familiarity with the depicted data) are described based on 103 papers presenting empirical studies. Types of maps were identified in scope of every feature. Most frequently used ones are displayed on the screen, non-interactive, depicting qualitative data and area unfamiliar for the participant of the study.
3 citations
Additional excerpts
...…+ + + + + + Popelka & Brychtova 2013 + + + + + Poplin 2015 + + + + Poplin, Guan & Lewis 2016 + + + + + + Pugliesi, Decanini & Tachibana 2009 + + + + Putto et al. 2014 + + + + + Raposo & Brewer 2014 + + + + + Retchless 2014 + + + + + Reyes Nuñez & Juhász 2015 + + + + Rigby & Winter 2016 + + +…...
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TL;DR: In this paper , the authors show that scanpath gaze displays do not provide useful cues to improve monitoring accuracy in navigational map reading tasks and conclude that gaze displays are a promising tool for education.
Abstract: Background Performance monitoring plays a key role in self-regulated learning, but is difficult, especially for complex visual tasks such as navigational map reading. Gaze displays (i.e. visualizations of participants' eye movements during a task) might serve as feedback to improve students' performance monitoring. Objectives We hypothesized that participants who review their performance based on screen recordings that also display their gaze would have a higher monitoring accuracy and increase in post-test performance and would remember more executed actions than participants who review based on a screen recording only (i.e. control condition). Methods Sixty-four higher education students were randomly assigned to a gaze-display or control condition. After watching an instruction video, they practiced five navigational map-reading tasks and then reviewed their performance while thinking aloud, either prompted by a screen recording with gaze display or a screen recording only. Before and after reviewing, participants estimated the number of correctly solved tasks and finally made a five-item post-test. Results and conclusions Analyses with frequentist and Bayesian statistics showed that gaze displays did not improve monitoring accuracy (i.e. estimated minus actual performance), post-test performance, or the number of reported actions. It is concluded that scanpath gaze displays do not provide useful cues to improve monitoring accuracy in this task. Takeaways Gaze displays are a promising tool for education, but scanpath gaze displays did not help to enhance monitoring accuracy in a navigational map-reading task.
2 citations
References
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Journal Article•
TL;DR: Copyright (©) 1999–2012 R Foundation for Statistical Computing; permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and permission notice are preserved on all copies.
Abstract: Copyright (©) 1999–2012 R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation approved by the R Core Team.
272,030 citations
"Effects of Cartographic Elevation V..." refers methods in this paper
...The statistical analyses were performed using R software environment (R Core Team, 2013) and the statistical figures were produced using ggplot2 data visualization package for R (Wickham, 2009)....
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Book•
13 Aug 2009
TL;DR: This book describes ggplot2, a new data visualization package for R that uses the insights from Leland Wilkisons Grammar of Graphics to create a powerful and flexible system for creating data graphics.
Abstract: This book describes ggplot2, a new data visualization package for R that uses the insights from Leland Wilkisons Grammar of Graphics to create a powerful and flexible system for creating data graphics. With ggplot2, its easy to: produce handsome, publication-quality plots, with automatic legends created from the plot specification superpose multiple layers (points, lines, maps, tiles, box plots to name a few) from different data sources, with automatically adjusted common scales add customisable smoothers that use the powerful modelling capabilities of R, such as loess, linear models, generalised additive models and robust regression save any ggplot2 plot (or part thereof) for later modification or reuse create custom themes that capture in-house or journal style requirements, and that can easily be applied to multiple plots approach your graph from a visual perspective, thinking about how each component of the data is represented on the final plot. This book will be useful to everyone who has struggled with displaying their data in an informative and attractive way. You will need some basic knowledge of R (i.e. you should be able to get your data into R), but ggplot2 is a mini-language specifically tailored for producing graphics, and youll learn everything you need in the book. After reading this book youll be able to produce graphics customized precisely for your problems,and youll find it easy to get graphics out of your head and on to the screen or page.
29,504 citations
"Effects of Cartographic Elevation V..." refers methods in this paper
...The statistical analyses were performed using R software environment (R Core Team, 2013) and the statistical figures were produced using ggplot2 data visualization package for R (Wickham, 2009)....
[...]
Journal Article•
TL;DR: The theory of information as discussed by the authors provides a yardstick for calibrating our stimulus materials and for measuring the performance of our subjects and provides a quantitative way of getting at some of these questions.
Abstract: First, the span of absolute judgment and the span of immediate memory impose severe limitations on the amount of information that we are able to receive, process, and remember. By organizing the stimulus input simultaneously into several dimensions and successively into a sequence or chunks, we manage to break (or at least stretch) this informational bottleneck. Second, the process of recoding is a very important one in human psychology and deserves much more explicit attention than it has received. In particular, the kind of linguistic recoding that people do seems to me to be the very lifeblood of the thought processes. Recoding procedures are a constant concern to clinicians, social psychologists, linguists, and anthropologists and yet, probably because recoding is less accessible to experimental manipulation than nonsense syllables or T mazes, the traditional experimental psychologist has contributed little or nothing to their analysis. Nevertheless, experimental techniques can be used, methods of recoding can be specified, behavioral indicants can be found. And I anticipate that we will find a very orderly set of relations describing what now seems an uncharted wilderness of individual differences. Third, the concepts and measures provided by the theory of information provide a quantitative way of getting at some of these questions. The theory provides us with a yardstick for calibrating our stimulus materials and for measuring the performance of our subjects. In the interests of communication I have suppressed the technical details of information measurement and have tried to express the ideas in more familiar terms; I hope this paraphrase will not lead you to think they are not useful in research. Informational concepts have already proved valuable in the study of discrimination and of language; they promise a great deal in the study of learning and memory; and it has even been proposed that they can be useful in the study of concept formation. A lot of questions that seemed fruitless twenty or thirty years ago may now be worth another look. In fact, I feel that my story here must stop just as it begins to get really interesting. And finally, what about the magical number seven? What about the seven wonders of the world, the seven seas, the seven deadly sins, the seven daughters of Atlas in the Pleiades, the seven ages of man, the seven levels of hell, the seven primary colors, the seven notes of the musical scale, and the seven days of the week? What about the seven-point rating scale, the seven categories for absolute judgment, the seven objects in the span of attention, and the seven digits in the span of immediate memory? For the present I propose to withhold judgment. Perhaps there is something deep and profound behind all these sevens, something just calling out for us to discover it. But I suspect that it is only a pernicious, Pythagorean coincidence.
19,835 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1956
TL;DR: The theory provides us with a yardstick for calibrating the authors' stimulus materials and for measuring the performance of their subjects, and the concepts and measures provided by the theory provide a quantitative way of getting at some of these questions.
Abstract: First, the span of absolute judgment and the span of immediate memory impose severe limitations on the amount of information that we are able to receive, process, and remember. By organizing the stimulus input simultaneously into several dimensions and successively into a sequence or chunks, we manage to break (or at least stretch) this informational bottleneck. Second, the process of recoding is a very important one in human psychology and deserves much more explicit attention than it has received. In particular, the kind of linguistic recoding that people do seems to me to be the very lifeblood of the thought processes. Recoding procedures are a constant concern to clinicians, social psychologists, linguists, and anthropologists and yet, probably because recoding is less accessible to experimental manipulation than nonsense syllables or T mazes, the traditional experimental psychologist has contributed little or nothing to their analysis. Nevertheless, experimental techniques can be used, methods of recoding can be specified, behavioral indicants can be found. And I anticipate that we will find a very orderly set of relations describing what now seems an uncharted wilderness of individual differences. Third, the concepts and measures provided by the theory of information provide a quantitative way of getting at some of these questions. The theory provides us with a yardstick for calibrating our stimulus materials and for measuring the performance of our subjects. In the interests of communication I have suppressed the technical details of information measurement and have tried to express the ideas in more familiar terms; I hope this paraphrase will not lead you to think they are not useful in research. Informational concepts have already proved valuable in the study of discrimination and of language; they promise a great deal in the study of learning and memory; and it has even been proposed that they can be useful in the study of concept formation. A lot of questions that seemed fruitless twenty or thirty years ago may now be worth another look. In fact, I feel that my story here must stop just as it begins to get really interesting. And finally, what about the magical number seven? What about the seven wonders of the world, the seven seas, the seven deadly sins, the seven daughters of Atlas in the Pleiades, the seven ages of man, the seven levels of hell, the seven primary colors, the seven notes of the musical scale, and the seven days of the week? What about the seven-point rating scale, the seven categories for absolute judgment, the seven objects in the span of attention, and the seven digits in the span of immediate memory? For the present I propose to withhold judgment. Perhaps there is something deep and profound behind all these sevens, something just calling out for us to discover it. But I suspect that it is only a pernicious, Pythagorean coincidence.
16,902 citations
"Effects of Cartographic Elevation V..." refers background in this paper
...Based on eyemovement measures, they concluded that experience develops identification and interpretation of common contour patterns through chunking (Miller, 1956)....
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TL;DR: Five important trends have emerged from recent work on computational models of focal visual attention that emphasize the bottom-up, image-based control of attentional deployment, providing a framework for a computational and neurobiological understanding of visual attention.
Abstract: Five important trends have emerged from recent work on computational models of focal visual attention that emphasize the bottom-up, image-based control of attentional deployment. First, the perceptual saliency of stimuli critically depends on the surrounding context. Second, a unique 'saliency map' that topographically encodes for stimulus conspicuity over the visual scene has proved to be an efficient and plausible bottom-up control strategy. Third, inhibition of return, the process by which the currently attended location is prevented from being attended again, is a crucial element of attentional deployment. Fourth, attention and eye movements tightly interplay, posing computational challenges with respect to the coordinate system used to control attention. And last, scene understanding and object recognition strongly constrain the selection of attended locations. Insights from these five key areas provide a framework for a computational and neurobiological understanding of visual attention.
4,485 citations
"Effects of Cartographic Elevation V..." refers background in this paper
...Neurons at the early stages of the visual system, starting already from the retina, are tuned to specific visual features such as intensity, contrast, colour, orientation, and motion at several spatial scales (Itti and Koch, 2001)....
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...Visual saliency is derived from these features, and more specifically the feature contrast against the surrounding context, rather than the absolute feature strength (Itti and Koch, 2001)....
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