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Journal ArticleDOI

Effects of velocity loss during resistance training on athletic performance, strength gains and muscle adaptations

TL;DR: The progressive accumulation of muscle fatigue as indicated by a more pronounced repetition velocity loss appears as an important variable in the configuration of the resistance exercise stimulus as it influences functional and structural neuromuscular adaptations.
Abstract: We compared the effects of two resistance training (RT) programs only differing in the repetition velocity loss allowed in each set: 20% (VL20) vs 40% (VL40) on muscle structural and functional adaptations. Twenty-two young males were randomly assigned to a VL20 (n = 12) or VL40 (n = 10) group. Subjects followed an 8-week velocity-based RT program using the squat exercise while monitoring repetition velocity. Pre- and post-training assessments included: magnetic resonance imaging, vastus lateralis biopsies for muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and fiber type analyses, one-repetition maximum strength and full load-velocity squat profile, countermovement jump (CMJ), and 20-m sprint running. VL20 resulted in similar squat strength gains than VL40 and greater improvements in CMJ (9.5% vs 3.5%, P < 0.05), despite VL20 performing 40% fewer repetitions. Although both groups increased mean fiber CSA and whole quadriceps muscle volume, VL40 training elicited a greater hypertrophy of vastus lateralis and intermedius than VL20. Training resulted in a reduction of myosin heavy chain IIX percentage in VL40, whereas it was preserved in VL20. In conclusion, the progressive accumulation of muscle fatigue as indicated by a more pronounced repetition velocity loss appears as an important variable in the configuration of the resistance exercise stimulus as it influences functional and structural neuromuscular adaptations.
Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
01 Feb 2017
TL;DR: Provided that repetitions are performed at maximal intended velocity, a good estimation of load can be obtained from mean velocity as soon as the first repetition is completed and allows implementing a velocity-based resistance training approach.
Abstract: The use of bar velocity to estimate relative load in the back squat exercise was examined. 80 strength-trained men performed a progressive loading test to determine their one-repetition maximum (1RM) and load-velocity relationship. Mean (MV), mean propulsive (MPV) and peak (PV) velocity measures of the concentric phase were analyzed. Both MV and MPV showed a very close relationship to %1RM (R2=0.96), whereas a weaker association (R2=0.79) and larger SEE (0.14 vs. 0.06 m·s−1) were found for PV. Prediction equations to estimate load from velocity were obtained. When dividing the sample into 3 groups of different relative strength (1RM/body mass), no differences were found between groups for the MPV attained against each %1RM. MV attained with the 1RM was 0.32±0.03 m·s−1. The propulsive phase accounted for ~82% of concentric duration at 40% 1RM, and progressively increased until reaching 100% at 1RM. Provided that repetitions are performed at maximal intended velocity, a good estimation of load (%1RM) can be obtained from mean velocity as soon as the first repetition is completed. This finding provides an alternative to the often demanding, time-consuming and interfering 1RM or nRM tests and allows implementing a velocity-based resistance training approach.

152 citations


Cites methods from "Effects of velocity loss during res..."

  • ...Thus, a velocity-based resistance training (VBRT) approach has been successfully implemented in several studies to monitor training loads [9, 11, 12, 28–30, 32] or to provide a non-invasive and objective measure to quantify the neuromuscular fatigue induced by resistance exercise [13, 24, 25, 29, 30, 34]....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is suggested that linear velocity/position transducers, camera-based optoelectronic systems, and the smartphone application could be used to obtain accurate velocity measurements for restricted linear movements, whereas the IMUs used in this study were less reliable and valid.
Abstract: Perez-Castilla, A, Piepoli, A, Delgado-Garcia, G, Garrido-Blanca, G, and Garcia-Ramos, A. Reliability and concurrent validity of seven commercially available devices for the assessment of movement velocity at different intensities during the bench press. J Strength Cond Res 33(5): 1258-1265, 2019-The aim of this study was to compare the reliability and validity of 7 commercially available devices to measure movement velocity during the bench press exercise. Fourteen men completed 2 testing sessions. One-repetition maximum (1RM) in the bench press exercise was determined in the first session. The second testing session consisted of performing 3 repetitions against 5 loads (45, 55, 65, 75, and 85% of 1RM). The mean velocity was simultaneously measured using an optical motion sensing system (Trio-OptiTrack; "gold-standard") and 7 commercially available devices: 1 linear velocity transducer (T-Force), 2 linear position transducers (Chronojump and Speed4Lift), 1 camera-based optoelectronic system (Velowin), 1 smartphone application (PowerLift), and 2 inertial measurement units (IMUs) (PUSH band and Beast sensor). The devices were ranked from the most to the least reliable as follows: (a) Speed4Lift (coefficient of variation [CV] = 2.61%); (b) Velowin (CV = 3.99%), PowerLift (3.97%), Trio-OptiTrack (CV = 4.04%), T-Force (CV = 4.35%), and Chronojump (CV = 4.53%); (c) PUSH band (CV = 9.34%); and (d) Beast sensor (CV = 35.0%). A practically perfect association between the Trio-OptiTrack system and the different devices was observed (Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient (r) range = 0.947-0.995; p < 0.001) with the only exception of the Beast sensor (r = 0.765; p < 0.001). These results suggest that linear velocity/position transducers, camera-based optoelectronic systems, and the smartphone application could be used to obtain accurate velocity measurements for restricted linear movements, whereas the IMUs used in this study were less reliable and valid.

121 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Markers of acute (ammonia, growth hormone) and delayed (creatine kinase) fatigue showed a markedly different course of recovery between protocols, suggesting that training to failure slows down recovery up to 24–48 h post-exercise.
Abstract: To describe the acute and delayed time course of recovery following resistance training (RT) protocols differing in the number of repetitions (R) performed in each set (S) out of the maximum possible number (P) Ten resistance-trained men undertook three RT protocols [S × R(P)]: (1) 3 × 5(10), (2) 6 × 5(10), and (3) 3 × 10(10) in the bench press (BP) and full squat (SQ) exercises Selected mechanical and biochemical variables were assessed at seven time points (from − 12 h to + 72 h post-exercise) Countermovement jump height (CMJ) and movement velocity against the load that elicited a 1 m s−1 mean propulsive velocity (V1) and 75% 1RM in the BP and SQ were used as mechanical indicators of neuromuscular performance Training to muscle failure in each set [3 × 10(10)], even when compared to completing the same total exercise volume [6 × 5(10)], resulted in a significantly higher acute decline of CMJ and velocity against the V1 and 75% 1RM loads in both BP and SQ In contrast, recovery from the 3 × 5(10) and 6 × 5(10) protocols was significantly faster between 24 and 48 h post-exercise compared to 3 × 10(10) Markers of acute (ammonia, growth hormone) and delayed (creatine kinase) fatigue showed a markedly different course of recovery between protocols, suggesting that training to failure slows down recovery up to 24–48 h post-exercise RT leading to failure considerably increases the time needed for the recovery of neuromuscular function and metabolic and hormonal homeostasis Avoiding failure would allow athletes to be in a better neuromuscular condition to undertake a new training session or competition in a shorter period of time

109 citations


Cites background from "Effects of velocity loss during res..."

  • ...On the other hand, these exercise to failure protocols are known to induce a larger hypertrophic effect (Pareja-Blanco et al. 2017)....

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  • ..., submaximal level of effort) has been shown to be an adequate strategy to achieve positive neuromuscular and morphological adaptations (Davies et al. 2016; Folland et al. 2002; Izquierdo-Gabarren et al. 2010; Pareja-Blanco et al. 2017; Sampson and Groeller 2016), and even most importantly, to enhance athletes’ competitive performance (García-Pallarés et al....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Monitoring repetition velocity and using equations to predict the percentage of performed repetitions from relative velocity loss can estimate, with considerable precision, how many repetitions are left in reserve in a bench press exercise set.
Abstract: This study aimed to analyze: 1) the pattern of repetition velocity decline during a single set to failure against different submaximal loads (50–85% 1RM) in the bench press exercise; and 2) the reliability of the percentage of performed repetitions, with respect to the maximum possible number that can be completed, when different magnitudes of velocity loss have been reached within each set. Twenty-two men performed 8 tests of maximum number of repetitions (MNR) against loads of 50–55–60–65–70–75–80–85% 1RM, in random order, every 6–7 days. Another 28 men performed 2 separate MNR tests against 60% 1RM. A very close relationship was found between the relative loss of velocity in a set and the percentage of performed repetitions. This relationship was very similar for all loads, but particularly for 50–70% 1RM, even though the number of repetitions completed at each load was significantly different. Moreover, the percentage of performed repetitions for a given velocity loss showed a high absolute reliability. Equations to predict the percentage of performed repetitions from relative velocity loss are provided. By monitoring repetition velocity and using these equations, one can estimate, with considerable precision, how many repetitions are left in reserve in a bench press exercise set.

99 citations


Cites background from "Effects of velocity loss during res..."

  • ...nate each training set as soon as a certain level of neuromuscular fatigue is detected (which, in turn, will depend on the specific goal being pursued) [19, 23]....

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  • ...Therefore, in the context of a velocity-based resistance training approach [19, 23], two separate studies were undertaken....

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  • ...During RT in isoinertial conditions, and assuming every repetition is performed with maximal voluntary effort, an unintentional decrease in force, velocity and hence power output is observed as fatigue develops and the number of repetitions approaches failure [15, 19, 23]....

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  • ...As an alternative, recent research has examined the possibility of using movement velocity as an indicator of relative load during resistance exercise [11, 17, 19, 23, 24]....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This study aimed to analyze the agreement between five bar velocity monitoring devices, currently used in resistance training, to determine the most reliable device based on reproducibility (between-device agreement for a given trial) and repeatability ( between-trial variation for each device)
Abstract: This study aimed to analyze the agreement between five bar velocity monitoring devices, currently used in resistance training, to determine the most reliable device based on reproducibility (between-device agreement for a given trial) and repeatability (between-trial variation for each device). Seventeen resistance-trained men performed duplicate trials against seven increasing loads (20-30-40-50-60-70-80 kg) while obtaining mean, mean propulsive and peak velocity outcomes in the bench press, full squat and prone bench pull exercises. Measurements were simultaneously registered by two linear velocity transducers (LVT), two linear position transducers (LPT), two optoelectronic camera-based systems (OEC), two smartphone video-based systems (VBS) and one accelerometer (ACC). A comprehensive set of statistics for assessing reliability was used. Magnitude of errors was reported both in absolute (m s−1) and relative terms (%1RM), and included the smallest detectable change (SDC) and maximum errors (MaxError). LVT was the most reliable and sensitive device (SDC 0.02–0.06 m s−1, MaxError 3.4–7.1% 1RM) and the preferred reference to compare with other technologies. OEC and LPT were the second-best alternatives (SDC 0.06–0.11 m s−1), always considering the particular margins of error for each exercise and velocity outcome. ACC and VBS are not recommended given their substantial errors and uncertainty of the measurements (SDC > 0.13 m s−1).

95 citations

References
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PatentDOI
TL;DR: This new method maintains the high sensitivity and low protein-to-protein variation associated with the Lowry technique and demonstrates a greater tolerance of the bicinchoninate reagent toward such commonly encountered interferences as nonionic detergents and simple buffer salts.

20,907 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The purpose of the present communication is to point out some of the problems involved in the classification of fibers and to add new information of value in the analysis of human biopsy material.
Abstract: STUDIES on normal and pathological striated muscle are increasingly clouded by inconsistencies in the definition of fiber types and lack of correlation between different systems of nomenclature. The purpose of the present communication is to point out some of the problems involved in the classification of fibers and to add new information of value in the analysis of human biopsy material. The histochemical reaction for myosin adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) and the pH lability of this reaction is used to characterize the various types of fibers. Material and Methods Muscle was obtained by biopsy in man, rat, and rabbit. Gastrocnemius and soleus were investigated in the animals. The human biopsies were taken from the biceps. The methods used for histochemical analysis have been given elsewhere. 1 In summary, unfixed frozen material was sectioned at 10μ thickness in the cryostat and the following histochemical reactions were carried out: (1) reduced diphosphopyridine

2,132 citations


"Effects of velocity loss during res..." refers methods in this paper

  • ...To determine the muscle fiber type composition, adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) histochemistry was performed using pre-incubation pH values of 4.37, 4.60, and 10.30 (Brooke & Kaiser, 1970)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The gains in strength with HRST are undoubtedly due to a wide combination of neurological and morphological factors, although there is contrary evidence suggesting no change in cortical or corticospinal excitability.
Abstract: High-resistance strength training (HRST) is one of the most widely practiced forms of physical activity, which is used to enhance athletic performance, augment musculo-skeletal health and alter body aesthetics. Chronic exposure to this type of activity produces marked increases in muscular strength, which are attributed to a range of neurological and morphological adaptations. This review assesses the evidence for these adaptations, their interplay and contribution to enhanced strength and the methodologies employed. The primary morphological adaptations involve an increase in the cross-sectional area of the whole muscle and individual muscle fibres, which is due to an increase in myofibrillar size and number. Satellite cells are activated in the very early stages of training; their proliferation and later fusion with existing fibres appears to be intimately involved in the hypertrophy response. Other possible morphological adaptations include hyperplasia, changes in fibre type, muscle architecture, myofilament density and the structure of connective tissue and tendons. Indirect evidence for neurological adaptations, which encompasses learning and coordination, comes from the specificity of the training adaptation, transfer of unilateral training to the contralateral limb and imagined contractions. The apparent rise in whole-muscle specific tension has been primarily used as evidence for neurological adaptations; however, morphological factors (e.g. preferential hypertrophy of type 2 fibres, increased angle of fibre pennation, increase in radiological density) are also likely to contribute to this phenomenon. Changes in inter-muscular coordination appear critical. Adaptations in agonist muscle activation, as assessed by electromyography, tetanic stimulation and the twitch interpolation technique, suggest small, but significant increases. Enhanced firing frequency and spinal reflexes most likely explain this improvement, although there is contrary evidence suggesting no change in cortical or corticospinal excitability. The gains in strength with HRST are undoubtedly due to a wide combination of neurological and morphological factors. Whilst the neurological factors may make their greatest contribution during the early stages of a training programme, hypertrophic processes also commence at the onset of training.

1,086 citations


"Effects of velocity loss during res..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Limiting the analysis to a few slices precludes any definitive conclusion regarding muscle volume changes (Aagaard et al., 2001) or potential differences in regional adaptations (Folland & Williams, 2007; Sanchis-Moysi et al., 2010, 2011, 2012)....

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  • ...It has been suggested that the multiple-slice MRI scanning allows a more accurate quantification of changes in whole muscle volume (Folland & Williams, 2007)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Low and intermediate RM training appears to induce similar muscular adaptations, at least after short-term training in previously untrained subjects, and both physical performance and the associated physiological adaptations are linked to the intensity and number of repetitions performed, and thus lend support to the strength–endurance continuum.
Abstract: Thirty-two untrained men [mean (SD) age 22.5 (5.8) years, height 178.3 (7.2) cm, body mass 77.8 (11.9) kg] participated in an 8-week progressive resistance-training program to investigate the "strength–endurance continuum". Subjects were divided into four groups: a low repetition group (Low Rep, n=9) performing 3–5 repetitions maximum (RM) for four sets of each exercise with 3 min rest between sets and exercises, an intermediate repetition group (Int Rep, n=11) performing 9–11 RM for three sets with 2 min rest, a high repetition group (High Rep, n=7) performing 20–28 RM for two sets with 1 min rest, and a non-exercising control group (Con, n=5). Three exercises (leg press, squat, and knee extension) were performed 2 days/week for the first 4 weeks and 3 days/week for the final 4 weeks. Maximal strength [one repetition maximum, 1RM), local muscular endurance (maximal number of repetitions performed with 60% of 1RM), and various cardiorespiratory parameters (e.g., maximum oxygen consumption, pulmonary ventilation, maximal aerobic power, time to exhaustion) were assessed at the beginning and end of the study. In addition, pre- and post-training muscle biopsy samples were analyzed for fiber-type composition, cross-sectional area, myosin heavy chain (MHC) content, and capillarization. Maximal strength improved significantly more for the Low Rep group compared to the other training groups, and the maximal number of repetitions at 60% 1RM improved the most for the High Rep group. In addition, maximal aerobic power and time to exhaustion significantly increased at the end of the study for only the High Rep group. All three major fiber types (types I, IIA, and IIB) hypertrophied for the Low Rep and Int Rep groups, whereas no significant increases were demonstrated for either the High Rep or Con groups. However, the percentage of type IIB fibers decreased, with a concomitant increase in IIAB fibers for all three resistance-trained groups. These fiber-type conversions were supported by a significant decrease in MHCIIb accompanied by a significant increase in MHCIIa. No significant changes in fiber-type composition were found in the control samples. Although all three training regimens resulted in similar fiber-type transformations (IIB to IIA), the low to intermediate repetition resistance-training programs induced a greater hypertrophic effect compared to the high repetition regimen. The High Rep group, however, appeared better adapted for submaximal, prolonged contractions, with significant increases after training in aerobic power and time to exhaustion. Thus, low and intermediate RM training appears to induce similar muscular adaptations, at least after short-term training in previously untrained subjects. Overall, however, these data demonstrate that both physical performance and the associated physiological adaptations are linked to the intensity and number of repetitions performed, and thus lend support to the "strength–endurance continuum".

1,008 citations


"Effects of velocity loss during res..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Resistance training to failure is known to elicit IIX to IIA fiber transformation (Staron et al., 1991; Kraemer et al., 1995; Andersen & Aagaard, 2000; Campos et al., 2002; Andersen et al., 2005, 2010)....

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  • ...Interestingly, most studies have shown that the percentage of type IIX fibers is reduced following a RT program based on repetitions to failure (Staron et al., 1991; Andersen & Aagaard, 2000; Campos et al., 2002; Andersen et al., 2005)....

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  • ...Since the pioneering study by Delorme (1945), training to muscle failure has been assumed by many as a governing principle of RT (Campos et al., 2002; Drinkwater et al., 2005) and it has become frequent practice in gyms and fitness facilities all across the world, being advocated on the assumption…...

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is indicated that the combination of strength and endurance training results in an attenuation of the performance improvements and physiological adaptations typical of single-mode training.
Abstract: Thirty-five healthy men were matched and randomly assigned to one of four training groups that performed high-intensity strength and endurance training (C; n = 9), upper body only high-intensity strength and endurance training (UC; n = 9), high-intensity endurance training (E; n = 8), or high-intensity strength training (ST; n = 9). The C and ST groups significantly increased one-repetition maximum strength for all exercises (P < 0.05). Only the C, UC, and E groups demonstrated significant increases in treadmill maximal oxygen consumption. The ST group showed significant increases in power output. Hormonal responses to treadmill exercise demonstrated a differential response to the different training programs, indicating that the underlying physiological milieu differed with the training program. Significant changes in muscle fiber areas were as follows: types I, IIa, and IIc increased in the ST group; types I and IIc decreased in the E group; type IIa increased in the C group; and there were no changes in the UC group. Significant shifts in percentage from type IIb to type IIa were observed in all training groups, with the greatest shift in the groups in which resistance trained the thigh musculature. This investigation indicates that the combination of strength and endurance training results in an attenuation of the performance improvements and physiological adaptations typical of single-mode training.

800 citations