Efficient Aluminum Chloride–Natural Graphite Battery
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the feasibility of the AlCl3-based ionic liquid-graphite anode material and found that it is an intercalating species.
Abstract: The quest for low-cost and large-scale stationary storage of electricity has led to a surge of reports on novel batteries comprising exclusively highly abundant chemical elements. Aluminum-based systems, inter alia, are appealing because of the safety and affordability of aluminum anodes. In this work, we examined the recently proposed aluminum–ionic liquid–graphite architecture. Using 27Al nuclear magnetic resonance, we confirmed that AlCl4– acts as an intercalating species. Although previous studies have focused on graphitic cathodes, we analyzed the practicality of achievable energy densities and found that the AlCl3-based ionic liquid is a capacity-limiting anode material. By focusing on both the graphitic cathode and the AlCl3-based anode, we improved the overall energy density. First, high cathodic capacities of ≤150 mAh g–1 and energy efficiencies of 90% at high electrode loadings of at least 10 mg cm–2 were obtained with natural, highly crystalline graphite flakes, which were subjected to minimal ...
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TL;DR: The complexity of multivalent metal-ion chemistries has led to rampant confusions, technical challenges, and eventually doubts and uncertainties about the future of these technologies as discussed by the authors, leading to rampant confusion and technical challenges.
Abstract: Batteries based on multivalent metals have the potential to meet the future needs of large-scale energy storage, due to the relatively high abundance of elements such as magnesium, calcium, aluminium and zinc in the Earth’s crust. However, the complexity of multivalent metal-ion chemistries has led to rampant confusions, technical challenges, and eventually doubts and uncertainties about the future of these technologies. In this Review, we clarify the key strengths as well as common misconceptions of multivalent metal-based batteries. We then examine the growth behaviour of metal anodes, which is crucial for their safety promises but hitherto unestablished. We further discuss scrutiny of anode efficiency and cathode storage mechanism pertaining to complications arising from electrolyte solutions. Finally, we critically review existing cathode materials and discuss design strategies to enable genuine multivalent metal-ion-based energy storage materials with competitive performance. Batteries based on multivalent metal anodes hold great promise for large-scale energy storage but their development is still at an early stage. This Review surveys the main complexity arising from anodes, electrolytes and cathodes, and offers views on the progression path of these technologies.
590 citations
TL;DR: The purpose here is to discuss how to further develop reliable nonaqueous AIBs, a complex device whose energy density is determined by various parameters, most of which are often ignored, resulting in failure to achieve the maximum performance of the cell.
Abstract: Aluminum-ion batteries (AIBs) are regarded as viable alternatives to lithium-ion technology because of their high volumetric capacity, their low cost, and the rich abundance of aluminum. However, several serious drawbacks of aqueous systems (passive film formation, hydrogen evolution, anode corrosion, etc.) hinder the large-scale application of these systems. Thus, nonaqueous AIBs show incomparable advantages for progress in large-scale electrical energy storage. However, nonaqueous aluminum battery systems are still nascent, and various technical and scientific obstacles to designing AIBs with high capacity and long cycling life have not been resolved until now. Moreover, the aluminum cell is a complex device whose energy density is determined by various parameters, most of which are often ignored, resulting in failure to achieve the maximum performance of the cell. The purpose here is to discuss how to further develop reliable nonaqueous AIBs. First, the current status of nonaqueous AIBs is reviewed based on statistical data from the literature. The influence of parameters on energy density is analyzed, and the current situation and existing problems are summarized. Furthermore, possible solutions and concerns regarding the construction of reliable nonaqueous AIBs are comprehensively discussed. Finally, future research directions and prospects in the aluminum battery field are proposed.
294 citations
TL;DR: A “trihigh tricontinuous” graphene film cathode with features of high quality, orientation, and channeling for local structures (3H) and continuous electron-conducting matrix, ion-diffusion highway, and electroactive mass for the whole electrode (3C) opens an avenue for a future super-batteries.
Abstract: Rechargeable aluminum-ion batteries are promising in high-power density but still face critical challenges of limited lifetime, rate capability, and cathodic capacity. We design a "trihigh tricontinuous" (3H3C) graphene film cathode with features of high quality, orientation, and channeling for local structures (3H) and continuous electron-conducting matrix, ion-diffusion highway, and electroactive mass for the whole electrode (3C). Such a cathode retains high specific capacity of around 120 mAh g-1 at ultrahigh current density of 400 A g-1 (charged in 1.1 s) with 91.7% retention after 250,000 cycles, surpassing all the previous batteries in terms of rate capability and cycle life. The assembled aluminum-graphene battery works well within a wide temperature range of -40 to 120°C with remarkable flexibility bearing 10,000 times of folding, promising for all-climate wearable energy devices. This design opens an avenue for a future super-batteries.
292 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the progress and challenges of DIB materials and electrolytes, especially with respect to performance parameters, e.g., energy density and cycling stability as well as cost, are discussed.
259 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors demonstrate a strategy for designing active materials for rechargeable aluminium batteries, which involves the use of redox-active triangular phenanthrenequinone-based macrocycles, which form layered superstructures resulting in the reversible insertion and extraction of a cationic aluminium complex.
Abstract: Since aluminium is one of the most widely available elements in Earth’s crust, developing rechargeable aluminium batteries offers an ideal opportunity to deliver cells with high energy-to-price ratios. Nevertheless, finding appropriate host electrodes for insertion of aluminium (complex) ions remains a fundamental challenge. Here, we demonstrate a strategy for designing active materials for rechargeable aluminium batteries. This strategy entails the use of redox-active triangular phenanthrenequinone-based macrocycles, which form layered superstructures resulting in the reversible insertion and extraction of a cationic aluminium complex. This architecture exhibits an outstanding electrochemical performance with a reversible capacity of 110 mA h g–1 along with a superior cyclability of up to 5,000 cycles. Furthermore, electrodes composed of these macrocycles blended with graphite flakes result in higher specific capacity, electronic conductivity and areal loading. These findings constitute a major advance in the design of rechargeable aluminium batteries and represent a good starting point for addressing affordable large-scale energy storage. The development of aluminium batteries relies heavily on the discovery of cathode materials that can reversibly insert Al-containing ions. Here the authors show that phenanthrenequinone-based compounds can take up the cationic aluminium complex, leading to promising aluminium batteries.
226 citations
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TL;DR: This Perspective provides a snapshot of the current energy landscape and discusses several research and development opportunities and pathways that could lead to a prosperous, sustainable and secure energy future for the world.
Abstract: Access to clean, affordable and reliable energy has been a cornerstone of the world's increasing prosperity and economic growth since the beginning of the industrial revolution. Our use of energy in the twenty–first century must also be sustainable. Solar and water–based energy generation, and engineering of microbes to produce biofuels are a few examples of the alternatives. This Perspective puts these opportunities into a larger context by relating them to a number of aspects in the transportation and electricity generation sectors. It also provides a snapshot of the current energy landscape and discusses several research and development opportunities and pathways that could lead to a prosperous, sustainable and secure energy future for the world.
7,721 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of electrical energy storage technologies for stationary applications is presented, with particular attention paid to pumped hydroelectric storage, compressed air energy storage, battery, flow battery, fuel cell, solar fuel, superconducting magnetic energy storage and thermal energy storage.
Abstract: Electrical energy storage technologies for stationary applications are reviewed. Particular attention is paid to pumped hydroelectric storage, compressed air energy storage, battery, flow battery, fuel cell, solar fuel, superconducting magnetic energy storage, flywheel, capacitor/supercapacitor, and thermal energy storage. Comparison is made among these technologies in terms of technical characteristics, applications and deployment status.
3,031 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of Na-ion battery materials is presented, with the aim of providing a wide view of the systems that have already been explored and a starting point for the new research on this battery technology.
Abstract: Energy production and storage have become key issues concerning our welfare in daily life. Present challenges for batteries are twofold. In the first place, the increasing demand for powering systems of portable electronic devices and zero-emission vehicles stimulates research towards high energy and high voltage systems. In the second place, low cost batteries are required in order to advance towards smart electric grids that integrate discontinuous energy flow from renewable sources, optimizing the performance of clean energy sources. Na-ion batteries can be the key for the second point, because of the huge availability of sodium, its low price and the similarity of both Li and Na insertion chemistries. In spite of the lower energy density and voltage of Na-ion based technologies, they can be focused on applications where the weight and footprint requirement is less drastic, such as electrical grid storage. Much work has to be done in the field of Na-ion in order to catch up with Li-ion technology. Cathodic and anodic materials must be optimized, and new electrolytes will be the key point for Na-ion success. This review will gather the up-to-date knowledge about Na-ion battery materials, with the aim of providing a wide view of the systems that have already been explored and a starting point for the new research on this battery technology.
3,017 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the performance and safety of rechargeable batteries depend strongly on the materials used and future trends, such as alternative materials for achieving higher specific charges are discussed, and a review of the insertion materials suitable for negative and positive insertion electrodes is presented.
Abstract: The performance and safety of rechargeable batteries depend strongly on the materials used. Lithium insertion materials suitable for negative and positive insertion electrodes are reviewed. Future trends, such as alternative materials for achieving higher specific charges are discussed. (orig.) 1041 refs.
2,761 citations
TL;DR: Rechargeable Mg battery systems that show promise for applications comprise electrolyte solutions based on Mg organohaloaluminate salts, and MgxMo 3S4 cathodes, into which Mg ions can be intercalated reversibly, and with relatively fast kinetics.
Abstract: The thermodynamic properties of magnesium make it a natural choice for use as an anode material in rechargeable batteries, because it may provide a considerably higher energy density than the commonly used lead-acid and nickel-cadmium systems Moreover, in contrast to lead and cadmium, magnesium is inexpensive, environmentally friendly and safe to handle But the development of Mg batteries has been hindered by two problems First, owing to the chemical activity of Mg, only solutions that neither donate nor accept protons are suitable as electrolytes; but most of these solutions allow the growth of passivating surface films, which inhibit any electrochemical reaction Second, the choice of cathode materials has been limited by the difficulty of intercalating Mg ions in many hosts Following previous studies of the electrochemistry of Mg electrodes in various non-aqueous solutions, and of a variety of intercalation electrodes, we have now developed rechargeable Mg battery systems that show promise for applications The systems comprise electrolyte solutions based on Mg organohaloaluminate salts, and Mg(x)Mo3S4 cathodes, into which Mg ions can be intercalated reversibly, and with relatively fast kinetics We expect that further improvements in the energy density will make these batteries a viable alternative to existing systems
1,851 citations