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Journal ArticleDOI

Eficácia de um programa de intervenção fonológica em escolares de risco para a dislexia

01 Dec 2015-Revista Cefac (CEFAC Saúde e Educação)-Vol. 17, Iss: 6, pp 1827-1837
TL;DR: The authors verificar a eficacia of a programa de intervencao fonologica em escolares de risco for a dislexia, e.g., verifiability of a leitura and escrita.
Abstract: Objetivo: verificar a eficacia de um programa de intervencao fonologica em escolares de risco para a dislexia. Metodos: participaram desse estudo 40 escolares do 1o ano do ensino fundamental, de ambos os generos, com idade entre 5 anos e 11 meses a 6 anos e 7 meses. Os escolares foram divididos em dois grupos: GI (20 escolares sem risco para dislexias) e GII (20 escolares com risco para dislexia), ambos os grupos foram submetidos ao programa de intervencao fonologica, composto por tarefas de identificacao dos sons e das letras do alfabeto em sequencia e em ordem aleatoria, identificacao e producao de rima, producao de rima com frases, identificacao e manipulacao de palavras, identificacao e producao de silabas, segmentacao e analise silabica, identificacao e segmentacao fonemica, substituicao, sintese, analise e discriminacao fonemica. Em situacao de pre e pos-testagem, todos os sujeitos desse estudo foram submetidos a aplicacao do Protocolo de Avaliacao das Habilidades Cognitivo-Liguisticas - versao coletiva e individual. Resultados: na comparacao da pre com a pos-testagem do desempenho dos escolares de GI e GII, houve diferenca estatistica para os subtestes das habilidades de leitura, escrita, consciencia fonologica, processamento auditivo e velocidade de processamento, indicando media de desempenho superior para GII na pos-testagem comparada a pre-testagem. Conclusao: o programa de intervencao fonologica foi eficaz para os escolares de risco para a dislexia, pois, possibilitou o desenvolvimento da consciencia fonologica por meio do trabalho interventivo, auxiliando na aquisicao das habilidades necessarias para o aprendizado da leitura e da escrita.

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1827
Rev. CEFAC. 2015 Nov-Dez; 17(6):1827-1837
EFFICACY OF PHONOLOGICAL INTERVENTION
PROGRAM IN STUDENTS AT RISK FOR DYSLEXIA
Eficácia de um programa de intervenção fonológica
em escolares de risco para a dislexia
Cláudia da Silva
(1)
, Simone Aparecida Capellini
(1)
(1)
Departamento de Fonoaudiologia da Faculdade de Filo-
soa e Ciências, Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de
Mesquita Filho” – UNESP – Marília (SP), Brasil.
Source: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientíco e
Tecnológico (CNPq)
Conict of interest: non-existent
The dyslexia can be dened as a specic
learning disorder of the reading that causes
di󰀩culties of processing of stimuli linguistic and
non-linguistic brief, rapid and successive. However,
when thinking about early identication of students
at risk for dyslexia the principal manifestations found
are phonological alterations, di󰀩culty in recognizing
letters, no association of relation letter/sound,
alteration in the discrimination of sounds, di󰀩culty in
distinguishing letters with nearby sounds, recurring
exchanges in speech and in the initial learning
writing
3,5,7-9
.
The phonological disorder has been pointed out
as one of the rst signs of risk for dyslexia, since
the phonological skills that should develop naturally
and spontaneously were not acquired, which
complicates the development of other skills such
as analysis, synthesis, segmentation and phonemic
INTRODUCTION
The early identication of students at risk for
dyslexia is a subject discussed in the international
literature since the decade of 80
1,2
. However, recent
studies claim that the sooner the principal signs
that characterize dyslexia is identied, the sooner
these students will be placed in the context of the
intervention to minimize the characteristics of the
framework and its interference in learning of the
reading and writing and actually conrm or not the
framework of dyslexia
3-6
.
ABSTRACT
Purpose: to verify the e󰀩cacy of phonological intervention program in students at risk for dyslexia.
Methods: participated these study 40 students of the 1
st
grade level of elementary school, of both
genders, with aged between5 years and 11 months to 6 years and 7 months. The students were
divided into two groups: GI (20 students without risk for dyslexia); and GII (20 students with risk
for dyslexia), both groups were subjected to phonological intervention program, composed by tasks
of identifying of sounds and letters of the alphabet in sequence and random order, identication
and production of rhyme, rhyme production with phrases, identication and manipulation of words,
identication and production of syllables, syllabic segmentation and analysis, phonemic identication
and segmentation, replacement, synthesis, analysis and phonemic discrimination. In situation of pre
and post-testing, all subjects in this study were submitted to the Evaluation Cognitive Linguistic Skills
Protocol collective and individual version. Results: in comparison of the pre with post testing of
the performance of students of GI and GII, was statistical di󰀨erence for the subtests of the skills
of reading, writing, phonological awareness, auditory processing and processing speed, indicating
average of superior performance for GII in post testing compared to pre testing. Conclusion: the
phonological intervention program was e󰀨ective for students at risk for dyslexia because it made
possible the development of phonological awareness through intervention, assisting in the acquisition
of skills necessary for the learning of reading and writing.
KEYWORDS: Early Intervention; Dyslexia; Reading; Writing; Learning

1828 Silva C, Capellini SA
Rev. CEFAC. 2015 Nov-Dez; 17(6):1827-1837
METHODS
This study was submitted and approved for the
Ethics Committee from the Faculty of Philosophy
and Sciences of São Paulo State University – CEP/
FFC/UNESP Marília (SP), under protocol
686/2009.
Participated in these study 40 students from
1
st
year of elementary school, 17 (42,5%) female
gender and 23 (57,5%) male gender, with aged
between 5 years and 11 months and 6 years and 7
months, were divided into two groups:
Group I (GI): composed of 20 students without
risk for dyslexia that were submitted to phonological
intervention program, 10 students of the females
and 10 of the males, with aged between 5 years
and 11 months to 6 years and 7 months, regularly
registered in the 1
st
year of elementary school.
We considered students without risk for dyslexia
those that presented good academic performance,
indicated by teachers following the criterion of satis-
factory performance for two consecutive bimesters,
compared to its class group and absence of phono-
logical disorder.
Group II (GII): composed of 20 students at risk
for dyslexia that were submitted to phonological
intervention program, seven students of the females
and 13 males, with aged between 5 years and 11
months to 6 years and 3 months , regularly regis-
tered in the 1
st
year of elementary school.
The students of group GII were identied among
70 students regularly registered in 1
st
year of
elementary education at a public school in Marília-SP,
through the application of Child Language Test in
the areas of phonology, vocabulary, uency and
pragmatic ABFW
16
for identication and conr-
mation of the diagnosis of phonological disorder. To
determine the severity of phonological disorder was
used the index of Percentage of Correct Consonants
PCC
1
, this index checks the number of correct
consonants produced in a sample of speech
according to the total number of consonants in the
sample, which is considered as incorrect consonant,
the omissions, substitutions and common and not
common distortions.
Thus, the index of phonological disorder was
calculated after classifying phonological processes,
the quantity and productivity of each process
observed in the speech sample obtained through
naming and imitation proofs of the ABFW. This
index was calculated with the division the correct
consonants emitted by total consonants of the proof
multiplied by 100%. That way, phonological disorder
was considered mild if the PCC is 85% to 100%,
lightly moderate from 65% to 85%, moderately
severe in 50% to 65% and severe if lower than 50%.
manipulation
9-11
, which may inuence the acqui-
sition of the mechanism of phoneme-grapheme
conversion for the learning of reading and writing
(4,7)
.
The phonological disorder characterized by
disorganization of speech that impairs the language
development owing to the presence of substitutions,
distortions and omissions of sounds
10
. However,
despite being considered the main sign of risk for
dyslexia, should be taken into consideration, the
other signs, mentioned above, which manifest
themselves in the classroom, taking this school to
a lower performance relative to their group-class in
activities related to reading and writing
12,13
.
The thematic about early identication of
students at risk for dyslexia and the practice of
interventional work is still very recent and developed
studies have as its primary focus, the intervention
with phonological basis, and have shown good
results through of the intervention using activities
that involve phonological awareness, among them
stand out the sound perception (rhyme and allit-
eration) and the manipulation of speech segments
(segmentation, analysis and synthesis phonemic),
beyond the letter/sound relationship
4,10
.
The early intervention proposes to provide insight
to verify if, after the implementation of specic
programs, involving the stimulation of cognitive-
linguistic skills that have been altered or delayed,
the students show or no improvement in learning of
reading.
Those who, after submitted to an intervention
program, remaining with gaps in skills of phono-
logical awareness, processing speed, visual
and auditory processing, and in the letter/sound
relationship, suggest a disorder present in the
processing, storage and/or access information,
which impairs the acquisition and development of
perceptive and linguistic skills, should submitted the
interdisciplinary evaluation to conrm the manifes-
tation of dyslexia and periodic monitoring order to
minimize the deciencies identied in the evaluation
process
3,14,15
.
Thus, based on the specialized literature, as
before phonological disorders in school phase is
identied, the faster early intervention programs can
be realized by decreasing the impact of this disorder
on the reading and writing learning, especially at
the beginning of the 1
st
year of elementary school
3
.
However, in Brazil, are still few studies that use inter-
vention programs directed for early identication of
dyslexia and, therefore, for tracking of students at
risk for dyslexia
8,9
.
In result of the above, this study aimed to verify
the e󰀩cacy of phonological intervention program in
students at risk for dyslexia.

Phonological intervention at risk for dyslexia 1829
Rev. CEFAC. 2015 Nov-Dez; 17(6):1827-1837
Table 1 – Comparison of the index of gravity of the phonological disorder – PCC in the naming and
imitation task
Appointment Degree of severity pre
Appointment Degree of severity post
Total
1 2
1
16 0 16
80,00% 0,00% 80,00%
2
3 0 3
15,00% 0,00% 15,00%
3
0 1 1
0,00% 5,00% 5,00%
Total
19 1 20
95,00% 5,00% 100,00%
Appointment Degree of severity pre
Appointment Degree of severity post
Total
1
1
17 17
85,00% 85,00%
2
3 3
15,00% 15,00%
Total
20 20
100,00% 100,00%
Legend: 1: mild; 2: lightly moderate; 3: moderately severe
* Signicant values for the nomination (p=0,125) – Signal Test
* Signicant values for the imitation (p=0,250) – Signal Test
The data collection was realized at the Laboratory
of Investigation of Deviations from Learning – LIDA/
UNESP-Marília-SP and started after signing of the
Consent Term form by parents or those responsible
for students.
All students in this study was submitted the same
procedures in situation of pre and post-testing and
intervention. The choice of procedures pre and post-
testing followed the following criteria: instruments to
verify the skill of reading words and pseudowords,
phonological skills (rhyme and alliteration), writing
skills and auditory processing skills, so they could
be evaluated skills worked in the intervention
process. Thus, in situation of pre and post-testing,
the following procedures were used:
A) Cognitive-Linguistic Performance Test
collective version
17
. This version was composed of
the following subtests: recognition of the alphabet
in sequence, words dictated and pseudowords and
dictation of digits. Besides the subtests cited were
added the subtests of recognition of the alphabet in
random order and mute dictation.
B) Cognitive-Linguistic Performance Test
individual version
17
. This version was composed of
the following subtests: reading words and non-words,
rhyme, alliteration, syllabic segmentation, auditory
discrimination, repetition of words and non-words,
numbers game inverted, rapid automatized naming
pictures and rapid automatic naming of digits. This
version was added subtest rapid automatic naming
of colors.
The evaluation tests used in pre and post-testing
were applied in four sessions, with two sessions for
pre-testing and two sessions for post-testing, lasting
50 minutes each.
The phonological intervention program was
realized in 15 sessions cumulative, in each session
was presented a new activity that was worked
coupled with the task developed in the previous
session, lasting 50 minutes each, twice a week.
The stages of phonological intervention program
were worked sequentially in the following order:
identication of sounds and letters of the alphabet,
identifying of sounds and letters of the alphabet
in random order, identication and production of
rhyme, rhyme production with phrases, identi-
cation and manipulation of words, identication and
production of syllables, segmentation and analysis
syllabic, identication and segmentation phonemic,
substitution, synthesis, analysis and phonemic
discrimination.
The results were statistically analyzed using
the program SPSS (Statistical Package for Social
Sciences), in its version 20.0, based on the number
of correct answers submitted by GI and GII, to
obtain the results. As a statistical test was used
Mann-Whitney Test, in order to verify possible di󰀨er-
ences in comparing the groups studied. The level

1830 Silva C, Capellini SA
Rev. CEFAC. 2015 Nov-Dez; 17(6):1827-1837
In phonological awareness skill we can verify
that there was statistical di󰀨erence for the subtests
of alliteration, rhyme and syllabic segmentation in
pre and post-test, suggesting that the interventive
work with phonological skills resulted in increased
average performance of phonological skills.
For auditory processing, in comparison of
the pre with post-testing of GI and GII was found
statistical di󰀨erence in the subtests of discrimi-
nation of sounds, repetition of words and dictation
of numbers for pre and post-testing, indicating an
improvement in performance of students regarding
sound perception, for storage and retrieval of infor-
mation for words and digits.
For the ability of processing speeding, in the
comparison of the pre with post- testing between
the performance of GI and GII, was found statis-
tical di󰀨erence for the subtests of rapid naming of
gures, rst and second rapid naming of digits in pre
and post-testing. The data suggest improvement
in processing, access and retrieval of visual infor-
mation quickly and successively, both for gures as
for digits.
Concerning the performance of students of GII,
after phonological intervention, for tests of naming
and imitation, we can observe that the students had
similar performance when comparing the situations
of pre and post-testing.
of signicance adopted was 5% (0,05) for the appli-
cation statistical tests.
RESULTS
In comparison of the pre with post-testing of the
performance of students of GI and GII for reading
ability, we can verify that occurred statistical
di󰀨erence in subtests of alphabet recognition pre
and post-testing, alphabet recognition in random
order to pre-testing, words read correctly in one
minute in the pre and post-testing.
The results show that GI and GII had mean
scores on superior performance in tests of recog-
nition of the alphabet that reected in the number
of words read correctly, even with no statistical
di󰀨erence in the subtests of reading words and not
words, the data suggest the inuence of the recog-
nition of alphabet for reading.
For writing skills, in comparison of the pre with
post-testing, we found that there was statistical
di󰀨erence in the writing subtest of the alphabet pre
and post-testing, word dictation post-testing, no
words dictation pre and post-testing, total dictation
pre and post-testing and mute dictation pre and
post-testing. The data suggest improvement in the
performance of students presenting a reection of
the relation letter/sound for acquisition and increase
of average of writing performance.

Phonological intervention at risk for dyslexia 1831
Rev. CEFAC. 2015 Nov-Dez; 17(6):1827-1837
Table 2 – Distribution of the performance of students of the GI and GII, in pre and post-testing, in the
skill of reading and writing
Variable Group Mean
Standard-
deviation
Minimum Maximum p-value
Alf Pré
GI 26,00 0,00 26,00 26,00
0,000*
GII 23,15 4,60 7,00 26,00
Alf Pós
GI 26,00 0,00 26,00 26,00
0,038*
GII 25,60 1,00 22,00 26,00
Alf Al Pré
GI 25,85 0,67 23,00 26,00
0,000*
GII 21,40 5,55 6,00 26,00
Alf Al Pós
GI 25,85 0,67 23,00 26,00
0,071
GII 24,60 2,85 18,00 26,00
LP Pré
GI 180,75 108,84 60,00 493,00
0,133
GII 373,45 398,75 0,00 1453,00
LP Pós
GI 160,80 95,19 54,00 467,00
0,304
GII 260,35 239,22 0,00 866,00
LNP Pré
GI 56,65 31,05 0,00 145,00
0,357
GII 91,75 91,91 0,00 337,00
LNP Pós
GI 56,70 44,23 13,00 217,00
0,935
GII 73,35 79,72 0,00 294,00
Cor1m Pré
GI 23,15 11,31 0,00 40,00
0,010*
GII 13,00 11,48 0,00 37,00
Cor1m Pós
GI 32,20 8,09 12,00 40,00
0,000*
GII 18,95 10,69 0,00 40,00
E Alf Pré
GI 25,85 0,49 24,00 26,00
0,000*
GII 20,75 6,46 7,00 26,00
E Alf Pós
GI 26,00 0,00 26,00 26,00
0,004*
GII 24,20 3,58 12,00 26,00
DitP Pré
GI 17,75 4,51 8,00 26,00
0,065
GII 12,65 9,19 0,00 28,00
DitP Pós
GI 27,50 3,76 16,00 30,00
0,000*
GII 20,25 9,17 0,00 30,00
DitNP Pré
GI 5,15 1,76 2,00 9,00
0,000*
GII 2,30 2,39 0,00 7,00
DitNP Pós
GI 7,55 1,23 5,00 9,00
0,000*
GII 3,90 2,17 0,00 7,00
DitT Pré
GI 30,70 5,12 23,00 39,00
0,000*
GII 14,95 10,66 0,00 33,00
DitT Pós
GI 35,05 4,63 21,00 39,00
0,000*
GII 24,15 11,14 0,00 36,00
DM Pré
GI 16,95 1,99 13,00 20,00
0,000*
GII 5,90 4,90 0,00 14,00
DM Pós
GI 18,50 1,64 15,00 20,00
0,000*
GII 9,10 4,86 0,00 16,00
Legend: Alf: alphabet, Alf Al: random alphabet, LP: words reading, LPN: no words reading, Cor1m: correct in 1(one) minute, E Alf:
writing of the alphabet, DitP: words dictation, DitNP: no words dictation, DM: mute dictation
* Signicant values (p≤0,05) – Statistical Mann-Whitney Test

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TL;DR: In this article, a semi-structured interview was conducted with each teacher, individually, in the school itself and was based on some guiding questions, revealing the lack of knowledge of literacy teachers on dyslexia, despite having undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as that of teachers who participated in training offered by the municipal education network.
Abstract: Objective: to describe the knowledge of elementary school teachers on child dyslexia. Methods: 10 teachers from the 1st to the 5th year of elementary education in public schools in the municipality of Abreu e Lima, Pernambuco, Brazil, participated in the study. A semi-structured interview was conducted with each teacher, individually, in the school itself and was based on some guiding questions. Results: content analysis allowed the identification of three thematic categories: 1. Teacher training does not address dyslexia; 2. Feelings and difficulties of the literacy teacher facing the challenges of literacy; 3. Lack of knowledge about dyslexia: school management of possibly dyslexic children. Conclusion: the research revealed the lack of knowledge of literacy teachers on dyslexia, despite having undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as that of teachers who participated in training offered by the municipal education network.

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TL;DR: The phonological remediation program showed to be a therapeutic method of fast beneficial effects in written language of individuals with dyslexia, although the wide age range and the size of the sample could be considered a limitation of this study – it interferes with the generalization of results.
Abstract: Objective: To determine the effects of a phonological remediation reading and writing program in individuals with dyslexia, through behavioral and objective evaluations. Patients and Methods: Twenty children diagnosed with dyslexia, aged 8–14 years, were included in this study. Group I (GI) was composed of 10 children who took part in the program, and group II (GII) consisted of 10 subjects who did not take the remediation. The pre-testing evaluated phonological awareness, rapid naming, working memory, reading and writing of words and nonwords, thematic writing, and auditory evoked potential – P300. The type of stimulus used was the speech (20% of rare stimulus and 80% of frequent stimulus), intensity of 80 dBNa. The rare stimulus was the syllable /da/, and the frequent stimulus was the syllable /ba/. Next, the Phonological Reading and Writing Remediation Program was applied in 24 cumulative sessions, twice a week, each with a duration of 30 min. In the post-testing (at the end of the program), all the tests of the pre-testing were reapplied. Results: There was a statistically significant difference (between pre- and post-testing) in phonological awareness, rapid naming, working memory, thematic writing, writing and reading words and nonwords, as well as in the latency of the P3 component of P300 in GI, while GII maintained the same difficulties. Conclusion: The phonological remediation program showed to be a therapeutic method of fast beneficial effects in written language of individuals with dyslexia. However, the wide age range and the size of the sample could be considered a limitation of this study – it interferes with the generalization of results.

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TL;DR: Children screened with altered auditory temporal processing presented a three times higher possibility of association with visual processing alterations, due to shared magnocellular system.
Abstract: Purpose: to verify whether students screened with altered auditory temporal processing are more likely to present altered visual processing. Methods: the sample consisted of 68 children, aged from 9 to 12 years, 53% males, from the 5th and 6th grades of a public school. All children with alterations in the audiological or ophthalmological evaluation were excluded. The Duration Pattern Test (screening for auditory temporal skill), the Reading Perceptual Scale (visual stress symptom questionnaire and colored overlays selection) and the Rate of Reading Test (number of words correctly read per minute) were used. Appropriate statistical tests were applied adopting the significance level lower than 0.05. Results: participants screened with abnormal auditory processing had higher visual stress symptoms and lower reading rate, with a significant and moderate effect (p< 0.05; d< 0.71), when compared to their peers with normal auditory processing. Among the children with altered Duration Pattern Test, 58% improved the reading rate with the use of colored overlays, whereas 29% did so in the control group (Odds Ratio = 3.4, p = 0.017). Conclusion: children screened with altered auditory temporal processing presented a three times higher possibility of association with visual processing alterations, due to shared magnocellular system.

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05 Oct 2018
TL;DR: The authors sistematizar pesquisas já realizadas sobre a contribuição de instruções fônicas na capacidade em desenvolver a consciência fonológica por intermédio do trabalho interventivo, auxiliando na aquisição das habilidades necessárias for o aprendizado da leitura and escrita em escolares de risco para dislexia.
Abstract: RESUMO A meta do presente estudo foi, por meio de uma revisão de literatura, sistematizar pesquisas já realizadas sobre a contribuição de instruções fônicas na capacidade em desenvolver a consciência fonológica por intermédio do trabalho interventivo, auxiliando na aquisição das habilidades necessárias para o aprendizado da leitura e escrita em escolares de risco para dislexia. Empregou-se a pesquisa literária pela análise de artigos publicados em revistas científicas com referência à temática de intervenção fonológica em escolares de risco para dislexia. Os resultados dos estudos demonstraram que o treino de instrução fônica dá suporte ao desenvolvimento da leitura e escrita em crianças de risco para dislexia.

4 citations


Cites background from "Eficácia de um programa de interven..."

  • ...Silva & Capellini (2015)6 Verificar a eficácia de um programa de intervenção fonológica em escolares de risco para dislexia....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors evaluated the performance of students with and without risk of dyslexia in metalinguistic tasks and found that the students at risk showed an increase in the mean of performance after the intervention.
Abstract: Introduction: Studies on students at risk for dyslexia have increased as well as the interest in verifying whether tasks involving a phonological basis can favor the performance of these students in the initial literacy process. Objective :Evaluate the performance of students with and without risk of dyslexia in metalinguistic tasks. Methods : Participants of this study were 40 students, aged between 5-6 years, enrolled in the 1 st year of elementary school, divided into two groups, GI: composed of 20 students without risk of dyslexia and GII: composed of 20 students at risk of dyslexia, both groups were submitted to the Evaluation Cognitive Linguistic Skills Protocol - collective and individual version (adapted), and phonological intervention composed of tasks of relation letter/sound alphabet in sequence and in random order, rhyme, identification and manipulation of words, identification and production of syllables, syllabic segmentation and analysis, identification and phonemic segmentation, substitution, synthesis, analysis and phonemic discrimination. Results : Indicated that the students from GI and GII showed statistically superior performance in the post testing compared to the performance obtained in the pre testing. Conclusion : The students at risk of dyslexia showed an increase in the mean of performance after the intervention, however, when compared with the performance of the students without risk for dyslexia, they presented inferior performance, indicating that, even after have underwent to the intervention, they did not reach the mean of performance of students without risk for dyslexia in metalinguistic tests.

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TL;DR: Rationale for the classification system is developed from current reviews of issues and concepts in phonology and classification systems, and proceeds from a worksheet for reduction of phonological and other assessment data, through five hierarchical levels of classification entries.
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238 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The potential benefits of invoking an RTI model for disabilities in the schools clearly are laudable, yet close examination reveals an unappreciated paucity of empirical support for RTI and an overly optimistic view of its practical, problematic issues.
Abstract: Response to Intervention (RTI) models of diagnosis and intervention are being implemented rapidly throughout the schools. The purposes of invoking an RTI model for disabilities in the schools clearly are laudable, yet close examination reveals an unappreciated paucity of empirical support for RTI and an overly optimistic view of its practical, problematic issues. Models are being put into practice without adequate research and logistical support and neglect the potential negative long-term impact on students with disabilities. Many implementation problems exist: (a) the vagaries of critical details of the model in practice; (b) the lack of consideration of bright struggling readers; (c) the relativeness, contextual, situation dependent nature of who is identified; (d) the worrisome shortcomings of the RTI process as a means of diagnosis or determination of a disability; and (e) the apparent lack of student-based data to guide effective choice of approaches and components of intervention. Practiced as a model of prevention, the authors agree with the concept of RTI. As the authors witness its application to disability determination sans the benefit of a reliable and valid empirical basis, the potential benefits to some children with disabilities remain an unproven hypothesis while the potential detriment to some children with disabilities remains a very real possibility.

228 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Tests of structural invariance show that models of early literacy development are highly transferable across languages and results demonstrated that RAN was more related to reading than spelling across orthographies, with the opposite pattern shown for PA.

209 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Differences in neural correlates of phonological processing in individuals with DD are not a result of reading failure, but are present before literacy acquisition starts, suggesting that compensatory mechanisms for reading failure are not yet present.
Abstract: Individuals with developmental dyslexia (DD) show a disruption in posterior left-hemispheric neural networks during phonological processing. Additionally, compensatory mechanisms in children and adults with DD have been located within frontal brain areas. However, it remains unclear when and how differences in posterior left-hemispheric networks manifest and whether compensatory mechanisms have already started to develop in the prereading brain. Here we investigate functional networks during phonological processing in 36 prereading children with a familial risk for DD (n = 18, average age = 66.50 mo) compared with age and IQ-matched controls (n = 18; average age = 65.61 mo). Functional neuroimaging results reveal reduced activation in prereading children with a family-history of DD (FHD+), compared with those without (FHD−), in bilateral occipitotemporal and left temporoparietal brain regions. This finding corresponds to previously identified hypoactivations in left hemispheric posterior brain regions for school-aged children and adults with a diagnosis of DD. Furthermore, left occipitotemporal and temporoparietal brain activity correlates positively with prereading skills in both groups. Our results suggest that differences in neural correlates of phonological processing in individuals with DD are not a result of reading failure, but are present before literacy acquisition starts. Additionally, no hyperactivation in frontal brain regions was observed, suggesting that compensatory mechanisms for reading failure are not yet present. Future longitudinal studies are needed to determine whether the identified differences may serve as neural premarkers for the early identification of children at risk for DD.

200 citations