Electric vehicles: How much range is required for a day’s driving?
01 Dec 2011-Transportation Research Part C-emerging Technologies (Pergamon Press)-Vol. 19, Iss: 6, pp 1171-1184
TL;DR: In this article, a full year of high-resolution driving data from 484 instrumented gasoline vehicles in the US is used to analyze daily driving patterns, and from those infer the range requirements of electric vehicles (EVs).
Abstract: One full year of high-resolution driving data from 484 instrumented gasoline vehicles in the US is used to analyze daily driving patterns, and from those infer the range requirements of electric vehicles (EVs). We conservatively assume that EV drivers would not change their current gasoline-fueled driving patterns and that they would charge only once daily, typically at home overnight. Next, the market is segmented into those drivers for whom a limited-range vehicle would meet every day’s range need, and those who could meet their daily range need only if they make adaptations on some days. Adaptations, for example, could mean they have to either recharge during the day, borrow a liquid-fueled vehicle, or save some errands for the subsequent day. From this analysis, with the stated assumptions, we infer the potential market share for limited-range vehicles. For example, we find that 9% of the vehicles in the sample never exceeded 100 miles in one day, and 21% never exceeded 150 miles in one day. These drivers presumably could substitute a limited-range vehicle, like electric vehicles now on the market, for their current gasoline vehicle without any adaptation in their driving at all. For drivers who are willing to make adaptations on 2 days a year, the same 100 mile range EV would meet the needs of 17% of drivers, and if they are willing to adapt every other month (six times a year), it would work for 32% of drivers. Thus, it appears that even modest electric vehicles with today’s limited battery range, if marketed correctly to segments with appropriate driving behavior, comprise a large enough market for substantial vehicle sales. An additional analysis examines driving versus parking by time of day. On the average weekday at 5 pm, only 15% of the vehicles in the sample are on the road; at no time during the year are fewer than 75% of vehicles parked. Also, because the return trip home is widely spread in time, even if all cars plug in and begin charging immediately when they arrive home and park, the increased demand on the electric system is less problematic than prior analyses have suggested.
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify potential socio-technical barriers to consumer adoption of EVs and determine if sustainability issues influence consumer decision to purchase an EV, and provide valuable insights into preferences and perceptions of technology enthusiasts; individuals highly connected to technology development and better equipped to sort out the many differences between EVs and CVs.
1,207 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a comprehensive overview of the drivers for and barriers against consumer adoption of plug-in EVs, as well as an overview of theoretical perspectives that have been utilized for understanding consumer intentions and adoption behavior towards EVs, identifying gaps and limitations in existing research and suggest areas in which future research would be able to contribute.
Abstract: In spite of the purported positive environmental consequences of electrifying the light duty vehicle fleet, the number of electric vehicles (EVs) in use is still insignificant. One reason for the modest adoption figures is that the mass acceptance of EVs to a large extent is reliant on consumers’ perception of EVs. This paper presents a comprehensive overview of the drivers for and barriers against consumer adoption of plug-in EVs, as well as an overview of the theoretical perspectives that have been utilized for understanding consumer intentions and adoption behavior towards EVs. In addition, we identify gaps and limitations in existing research and suggest areas in which future research would be able to contribute.
788 citations
Cites background from "Electric vehicles: How much range i..."
...As researchers point out (Franke et al., 2011; Pearre et al., 2011), there are psychological barriers in adaptation to limited range of BEVs which can possibly be overcome by interventions such as interface design and driver training....
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TL;DR: In this article, a case study using GPS-based travel survey data collected in the greater Seattle metropolitan area shows that electric miles and trips could be significantly increased by installing public chargers at popular destinations, with a reasonable infrastructure investment.
Abstract: This paper studies electric vehicle charger location problems and analyzes the impact of public charging infrastructure deployment on increasing electric miles traveled, thus promoting battery electric vehicle (BEV) market penetration. An activity-based assessment method is proposed to evaluate BEV feasibility for the heterogeneous traveling population in the real world driving context. Genetic algorithm is applied to find (sub)optimal locations for siting public charging stations. A case study using the GPS-based travel survey data collected in the greater Seattle metropolitan area shows that electric miles and trips could be significantly increased by installing public chargers at popular destinations, with a reasonable infrastructure investment.
451 citations
Cites background or methods or result from "Electric vehicles: How much range i..."
...This observation is similar to the study by Pearre et al. (2011), which reported, based on data collected in the Atlanta metropolitan area that 9% of the vehicles in the sample never exceeded 100 miles in one day....
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..., 2011) and the Atlanta, Georgia greater metropolitan area (Pearre et al., 2011)....
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...In addition, multiday vehicle data have also been used to analyze BEV range requirements in selected areas, including Winnipeg, Canada (Smith et al., 2011) and the Atlanta, Georgia greater metropolitan area (Pearre et al., 2011)....
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors predict the cost of a battery pack in 2030 when considering two aspects: firstly a decade of research will ensure an improvement in material sciences altering a battery's chemical composition.
Abstract: The negative impact of the automotive industry on climate change can be tackled by changing from fossil driven vehicles towards battery electric vehicles with no tailpipe emissions. However their adoption mainly depends on the willingness to pay for the extra cost of the traction battery. The goal of this paper is to predict the cost of a battery pack in 2030 when considering two aspects: firstly a decade of research will ensure an improvement in material sciences altering a battery’s chemical composition. Secondly by considering the price erosion due to the production cost optimization, by maturing of the market and by evolving towards to a mass-manufacturing situation. The cost of a lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) battery (Cathode: NMC 6:2:2 ; Anode: graphite) as well as silicon based lithium-ion battery (Cathode: NMC 6:2:2 ; Anode: silicon alloy), expected to be on the market in 10 years, will be predicted to tackle the first aspect. The second aspect will be considered by combining process-based cost calculations with learning curves, which takes the increasing battery market into account. The 100 dollar/kWh sales barrier will be reached respectively between 2020-2025 for silicon based lithium-ion batteries and 2025–2030 for NMC batteries, which will give a boost to global electric vehicle adoption.
410 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a literature review of studies that investigate infrastructure needs to support the market introduction of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs), focusing on literature relating to consumer preferences for charging infrastructure, and how consumers interact with and use this infrastructure.
Abstract: This paper presents a literature review of studies that investigate infrastructure needs to support the market introduction of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs). It focuses on literature relating to consumer preferences for charging infrastructure, and how consumers interact with and use this infrastructure. This includes studies that use questionnaire surveys, interviews, modelling, GPS data from vehicles, and data from electric vehicle charging equipment. These studies indicate that the most important location for PEV charging is at home, followed by work, and then public locations. Studies have found that more effort is needed to ensure consumers have easy access to PEV charging and that charging at home, work, or public locations should not be free of cost. Research indicates that PEV charging will not impact electricity grids on the short term, however charging may need to be managed when the vehicles are deployed in greater numbers. In some areas of study the literature is not sufficiently mature to draw any conclusions from. More research is especially needed to determine how much infrastructure is needed to support the roll out of PEVs. This paper ends with policy implications and suggests avenues of future research.
358 citations
References
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TL;DR: The theoretical charge capacity for silicon nanowire battery electrodes is achieved and maintained a discharge capacity close to 75% of this maximum, with little fading during cycling.
Abstract: There is great interest in developing rechargeable lithium batteries with higher energy capacity and longer cycle life for applications in portable electronic devices, electric vehicles and implantable medical devices. Silicon is an attractive anode material for lithium batteries because it has a low discharge potential and the highest known theoretical charge capacity (4,200 mAh g(-1); ref. 2). Although this is more than ten times higher than existing graphite anodes and much larger than various nitride and oxide materials, silicon anodes have limited applications because silicon's volume changes by 400% upon insertion and extraction of lithium which results in pulverization and capacity fading. Here, we show that silicon nanowire battery electrodes circumvent these issues as they can accommodate large strain without pulverization, provide good electronic contact and conduction, and display short lithium insertion distances. We achieved the theoretical charge capacity for silicon anodes and maintained a discharge capacity close to 75% of this maximum, with little fading during cycling.
6,104 citations
"Electric vehicles: How much range i..." refers background in this paper
...Advanced materials and electrochemistries (e.g. silicon nanowires rather than graphite sheet for the anode) already have shown the possibility of batteries with seven times the specific energy of today’s Li-ion designs (Chan et al., 2007)....
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors defined the three vehicle types that can produce V2G power and the power markets they can sell into, and developed equations to calculate the capacity for grid power from three types of electric drive vehicles.
2,128 citations
"Electric vehicles: How much range i..." refers background in this paper
...This will extend beyond load assessment, to an evaluation of surplus energy and power capacity that could be utilized for grid stabilization services through Grid-Interactive Vehicles with Vehicle to Grid power (Kempton and Tomic, 2005)....
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...The concern about rapid load increase is based on the 7 This is relevant to deferred charging and provision of grid services from plug-in vehicles (Kempton and Tomic, 2005), as it means that vehicles are parked and connected to the electric grid throughout the day....
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31 Jan 2007
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors estimated the regional percentages of the energy requirements for the U.S. light duty vehicle stock that could be supported by the existing grid, based on 12 NERC regions.
Abstract: This initial paper estimates the regional percentages of the energy requirements for the U.S. light duty vehicle stock that could be supported by the existing grid, based on 12 NERC regions. This paper also discusses the impact of overall emissions of criteria gases and greenhouse gases as a result of shifting emission from millions of tailpipes to a relatively few power plants. The paper concludes with an outlook of the technology requirements necessary to manage the additional and potentially sizable new load to maintain grid reliability.
526 citations
"Electric vehicles: How much range i..." refers background in this paper
...Prior analysis of grid capacity and electric vehicle energy consumption has concluded that in terms of generation capacity, more than three quarters of the light vehicle fleet could be powered by the existing grid, if charged off-peak (Pratt et al., 2007; Kintner-Meyer et al., 2009)....
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...One technical approach to range is the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV), which can be refueled by either electricity or liquid fuels....
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01 Oct 2006
TL;DR: In this article, the authors evaluate the effects of optimal plug-in hybrid charging under the assumption that utilities will indirectly or directly control when charging takes place, providing consumers with the absolute lowest cost of driving energy.
Abstract: Hybrid electric vehicles with the capability of being recharged from the grid may provide a significant decrease in oil consumption. These ''plug-in'' hybrids (PHEVs) will affect utility operations, adding additional electricity demand. Because many individual vehicles may be charged in the extended overnight period, and because the cost of wireless communication has decreased, there is a unique opportunity for utilities to directly control the charging of these vehicles at the precise times when normal electricity demand is at a minimum. This report evaluates the effects of optimal PHEV charging, under the assumption that utilities will indirectly or directly control when charging takes place, providing consumers with the absolute lowest cost of driving energy. By using low-cost off-peak electricity, PHEVs owners could purchase the drive energy equivalent to a gallon of gasoline for under 75 cents, assuming current national average residential electricity prices.
453 citations
"Electric vehicles: How much range i..." refers background in this paper
...Denholm and Short (2006) found less surplus electrical capacity, enough to power only 40% of the mileage of 50% of the vehicle fleet....
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...Similarly, studies have found that about three quarters of travel miles would be powered by electricity in a plug-in hybrid with 60 miles of electric range (Graham, 2001; Denholm and Short, 2006)....
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01 May 2007
TL;DR: In this article, the authors evaluated the impact of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) on utility system operations in the Xcel Energy Colorado service territory, and found that PHEVs can represent a significant potential shift in the use of electricity and operation of electric power systems.
Abstract: The combination of high oil costs, concerns about oil security and availability, and air quality issues related to vehicle emissions are driving interest in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). PHEVs are similar to conventional hybrid electric vehicles, but feature a larger battery and plug-in charger that allows electricity from the grid to replace a portion of the petroleum-fueled drive energy. PHEVs may derive a substantial fraction of their miles from grid-derived electricity, but without the range restrictions of pure battery electric vehicles. As of early 2007, production of PHEVs is essentially limited to demonstration vehicles and prototypes. However, the technology has received considerable attention from the media, national security interests, environmental organizations, and the electric power industry. The use of PHEVs would represent a significant potential shift in the use of electricity and the operation of electric power systems. Electrification of the transportation sector could increase generation capacity and transmission and distribution (T&D) requirements, especially if vehicles are charged during periods of high demand. This study is designed to evaluate several of these PHEV-charging impacts on utility system operations within the Xcel Energy Colorado service territory.
417 citations
"Electric vehicles: How much range i..." refers background in this paper
...The time that EVs would be plugged into the electric grid is of concern to electric industry managers and policymakers, some of whom have predicted excessive electricity demand due to many vehicles plugging in when they get home from work (Parks et al., 2007; Kelly, 2009)....
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...The former implies that initial electric vehicles will have less range than gasoline, and the latter implies that they cannot be quickly refueled en route....
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