Electrical Energy Storage for the Grid: A Battery of Choices
18 Nov 2011-Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science)-Vol. 334, Iss: 6058, pp 928-935
TL;DR: The battery systems reviewed here include sodium-sulfur batteries that are commercially available for grid applications, redox-flow batteries that offer low cost, and lithium-ion batteries whose development for commercial electronics and electric vehicles is being applied to grid storage.
Abstract: The increasing interest in energy storage for the grid can be attributed to multiple factors, including the capital costs of managing peak demands, the investments needed for grid reliability, and the integration of renewable energy sources. Although existing energy storage is dominated by pumped hydroelectric, there is the recognition that battery systems can offer a number of high-value opportunities, provided that lower costs can be obtained. The battery systems reviewed here include sodium-sulfur batteries that are commercially available for grid applications, redox-flow batteries that offer low cost, and lithium-ion batteries whose development for commercial electronics and electric vehicles is being applied to grid storage.
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TL;DR: The notion of sustainability is introduced through discussion of the energy and environmental costs of state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries, considering elemental abundance, toxicity, synthetic methods and scalability.
Abstract: Energy storage using batteries offers a solution to the intermittent nature of energy production from renewable sources; however, such technology must be sustainable. This Review discusses battery development from a sustainability perspective, considering the energy and environmental costs of state-of-the-art Li-ion batteries and the design of new systems beyond Li-ion. Images: batteries, car, globe: © iStock/Thinkstock.
5,271 citations
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TL;DR: The current understanding on Li anodes is summarized, the recent key progress in materials design and advanced characterization techniques are highlighted, and the opportunities and possible directions for future development ofLi anodes in applications are discussed.
Abstract: Lithium-ion batteries have had a profound impact on our daily life, but inherent limitations make it difficult for Li-ion chemistries to meet the growing demands for portable electronics, electric vehicles and grid-scale energy storage. Therefore, chemistries beyond Li-ion are currently being investigated and need to be made viable for commercial applications. The use of metallic Li is one of the most favoured choices for next-generation Li batteries, especially Li-S and Li-air systems. After falling into oblivion for several decades because of safety concerns, metallic Li is now ready for a revival, thanks to the development of investigative tools and nanotechnology-based solutions. In this Review, we first summarize the current understanding on Li anodes, then highlight the recent key progress in materials design and advanced characterization techniques, and finally discuss the opportunities and possible directions for future development of Li anodes in applications.
4,302 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the pseudocapacitance properties of transition metal oxides have been investigated and a review of the most relevant pseudo-capacitive materials in aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes is presented.
Abstract: Electrochemical energy storage technology is based on devices capable of exhibiting high energy density (batteries) or high power density (electrochemical capacitors). There is a growing need, for current and near-future applications, where both high energy and high power densities are required in the same material. Pseudocapacitance, a faradaic process involving surface or near surface redox reactions, offers a means of achieving high energy density at high charge–discharge rates. Here, we focus on the pseudocapacitive properties of transition metal oxides. First, we introduce pseudocapacitance and describe its electrochemical features. Then, we review the most relevant pseudocapacitive materials in aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes. The major challenges for pseudocapacitive materials along with a future outlook are detailed at the end.
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TL;DR: This review presents a comprehensive overview of the lithium metal anode and its dendritic lithium growth, summarizing the theoretical and experimental achievements and endeavors to realize the practical applications of lithium metal batteries.
Abstract: The lithium metal battery is strongly considered to be one of the most promising candidates for high-energy-density energy storage devices in our modern and technology-based society. However, uncontrollable lithium dendrite growth induces poor cycling efficiency and severe safety concerns, dragging lithium metal batteries out of practical applications. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the lithium metal anode and its dendritic lithium growth. First, the working principles and technical challenges of a lithium metal anode are underscored. Specific attention is paid to the mechanistic understandings and quantitative models for solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation, lithium dendrite nucleation, and growth. On the basis of previous theoretical understanding and analysis, recently proposed strategies to suppress dendrite growth of lithium metal anode and some other metal anodes are reviewed. A section dedicated to the potential of full-cell lithium metal batteries for practical applicatio...
3,812 citations
References
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TL;DR: A-MnO2 nanowires give the highest charge storage capacity yet reported for such an electrode, reaching 3000 mAh per gram of carbon, or 505 mAhg 1 if normalized by the total electrode mass, and is compared with other manganese oxide compounds.
Abstract: Charge storage in rechargeable lithium batteries is limited by the positive electrode, usually the lithium intercalation compound LiCoO2, which can store 130 mAhg . Intense efforts are underway worldwide to discover new lithium intercalation compounds for use as positive electrodes which, it is hoped, may deliver specific capacities of about 300 mAhg . However, increasing the capacity significantly beyond this limit is a major challenge requiring a more radical approach, such as replacement of the intercalation electrode by an O2 electrode, in which Li + from the electrolyte and e from the external circuit combine reversibly with O2 from the air within a porous matrix containing a catalyst. Although it provides higher capacities than intercalation electrodes, much fundamental work is required to understand and optimize the performance of the O2 electrode for lithium batteries before it can be considered further for technological application. The nature of the catalyst plays a key role. It is important to identify good catalysts for the electrode reaction before focusing on other tasks, such as reducing the catalyst loading and optimizing porosity, binder, and electrolyte. Herein we show that a-MnO2 nanowires give the highest charge storage capacity yet reported for such an electrode, reaching 3000 mAh per gram of carbon, or 505 mAhg 1 if normalized by the total electrode mass. Furthermore, by avoiding deep discharge, excellent capacity retention has been demonstrated. Finally, the capacities delivered by an O2 electrode and a conventional intercalation compound are compared. The reversible oxygen electrode is shown schematically in Figure 1. On discharge, the Li ions (electrolyte) and e (external circuit) combine with O2 (air) to form Li2O2 within the pores of the porous carbon electrode. Previously, we demonstrated that rechargeability of the Li/O2 cell involves decomposition of Li2O2 back to Li and O2. [8] Our earlier studies on the rechargeable Li/O2 cell focused on electrolytic manganese dioxide (EMD) as catalyst in the oxygen electrode. Recently, we examined a number of other potential catalyst materials including Co3O4, Fe2O3, CuO, and CoFe2O4. [9] Such investigations served to demonstrate that the nature of the catalyst is a key factor controlling the performance of the oxygen electrode, especially the capacity, which is the primary reason for interest in the O2 electrode. Herein we report on the high capacities that an a-MnO2 nanowire catalyst can deliver. We also compare the performance of a-MnO2 with other manganese oxide compounds. Note that the specific capacities are normalized with respect to the mass of carbon in the electrode, as is usual for porous electrodes; this point is discussed at the end of the paper. Synthesis and characterization of the various MnOx catalysts and their incorporation into lithium cells with porous electrodes is described in the Experimental Section. Powder X-ray diffraction data were collected for all catalysts (see the Supporting Information) and confirmed their identities (a-MnO2 in bulk and nanowire form, b-MnO2 in bulk and nanowire form, g-MnO2, l-MnO2, Mn2O3, and Mn3O4). The variation of capacity with cycle number for a porous electrode containing a-MnO2 nanowires as catalyst is presented in Figure 2a, from which the superior behavior of the a-MnO2 catalyst is evident. The initial discharge capacity is 3000 mAhg , it then drops slightly, rises again to 3100 mAhg 1 on cycle 4, before declining steadily thereafter. This may be contrasted with previous reports for EMD, the capacity of which falls below 1000 mAhg 1 after one cycle (Figure 2a). The variation of potential with state of charge for several cycles of a-MnO2 is shown in Figure 2b. As observed previously for all other catalysts, the discharge voltage is around 2.6 V versus Li/Li. 9] Previous results have demonstrated that the charging potential varies according to the catalyst type. Values ranging from 4 to 4.7 V versus Li/Li have been observed, and a-MnO2 exhibits a charging potential at the lower end of this spectrum, at around 4.0 V. This is another advantage of the a-MnO2 nanowires, since it is important to minimize the charging potential. Note that a-MnO2, and many of the other MnOx compounds described herein, support some Li intercalation. However, Figure 1. Schematic representation of a rechargeable Li/O2 battery.
913 citations
01 Feb 2010
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a high-level, technology-neutral framework for assessing potential benefits from and economic market potential for energy storage used for electric utility-related applications, possibly including distributed and/or modular systems.
Abstract: This guide describes a high-level, technology-neutral framework for assessing potential benefits from and economic market potential for energy storage used for electric-utility-related applications. The overarching theme addressed is the concept of combining applications/benefits into attractive value propositions that include use of energy storage, possibly including distributed and/or modular systems. Other topics addressed include: high-level estimates of application-specific lifecycle benefit (10 years) in $/kW and maximum market potential (10 years) in MW. Combined, these criteria indicate the economic potential (in $Millions) for a given energy storage application/benefit. The benefits and value propositions characterized provide an important indication of storage system cost targets for system and subsystem developers, vendors, and prospective users. Maximum market potential estimates provide developers, vendors, and energy policymakers with an indication of the upper bound of the potential demand for storage. The combination of the value of an individual benefit (in $/kW) and the corresponding maximum market potential estimate (in MW) indicates the possible impact that storage could have on the U.S. economy. The intended audience for this document includes persons or organizations needing a framework for making first-cut or high-level estimates of benefits for a specific storage project and/or those seeking a high-level estimate of viable price points and/or maximum market potential for their products. Thus, the intended audience includes: electric utility planners, electricity end users, non-utility electric energy and electric services providers, electric utility regulators and policymakers, intermittent renewables advocates and developers, Smart Grid advocates and developers, storage technology and project developers, and energy storage advocates.
728 citations
TL;DR: There is room for optimism as long as the authors pursue paradigm shifts while keeping in mind the concept of materials sustainability, and relying on new ways to prepare electrode materials via eco-efficient processes, on the use of organic rather than inorganic materials or new chemistries will be discussed.
Abstract: Batteries are a major technological challenge in this new century as they are a key method to make more efficient use of energy. Although today's Li-ion technology has conquered the portable electronic markets and is still improving, it falls short of meeting the demands dictated by the powering of both hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles or by the storage of renewable energies (wind, solar). There is room for optimism as long as we pursue paradigm shifts while keeping in mind the concept of materials sustainability. Some of these concepts, relying on new ways to prepare electrode materials via eco-efficient processes, on the use of organic rather than inorganic materials or new chemistries will be discussed. Achieving these concepts will require the inputs of multiple disciplines.
718 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a laboratory-scale cell was constructed to test the performance of V(II)/V(III) and V(IV/V(V) half-cells in an all-vanadium redox battery.
Abstract: A laboratory-scale cell was constructed to test the performance of V(II)/V(III) and V(IV)/V(V) half-cells in an all-vanadium redox battery. Graphite plates were used as electrodes, and the membrane was manufactured from a sulfonated polyehylene anion-selective material. The average charging efficiency of the cell was over 90 percent. Stability tests on the reduced and oxidized electrolytes, measured over the temperature range of -5 C to 60 C, showed no accelerated decomposition at high temperatures and no crystallization at the lower temperatures. After prolonged usage, however, a slow deterioration of the positive electrode and the membrane was observed. 9 references.
718 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the self diffusion coefficients of Na+, Ag+, K+, Rb+, and Li+ in single crystals of beta-alumina have been determined as a function of temperature.
710 citations