Emerging Infectious Diseases of Wildlife-- Threats to Biodiversity and Human Health
21 Jan 2000-Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science)-Vol. 287, Iss: 5452, pp 443-449
TL;DR: These phenomena have two major biological implications: many wildlife species are reservoirs of pathogens that threaten domestic animal and human health; second, wildlife EIDs pose a substantial threat to the conservation of global biodiversity.
Abstract: Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) of free-living wild animals can be classified into three major groups on the basis of key epizootiological criteria: (i) EIDs associated with “spill-over” from domestic animals to wildlife populations living in proximity; (ii) EIDs related directly to human intervention, via host or parasite translocations; and (iii) EIDs with no overt human or domestic animal involvement. These phenomena have two major biological implications: first, many wildlife species are reservoirs of pathogens that threaten domestic animal and human health; second, wildlife EIDs pose a substantial threat to the conservation of global biodiversity.
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TL;DR: It is concluded that global resources to counter disease emergence are poorly allocated, with the majority of the scientific and surveillance effort focused on countries from where the next important EID is least likely to originate.
Abstract: Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are a significant burden on global economies and public health. Their emergence is thought to be driven largely by socio-economic, environmental and ecological factors, but no comparative study has explicitly analysed these linkages to understand global temporal and spatial patterns of EIDs. Here we analyse a database of 335 EID 'events' (origins of EIDs) between 1940 and 2004, and demonstrate non-random global patterns. EID events have risen significantly over time after controlling for reporting bias, with their peak incidence (in the 1980s) concomitant with the HIV pandemic. EID events are dominated by zoonoses (60.3% of EIDs): the majority of these (71.8%) originate in wildlife (for example, severe acute respiratory virus, Ebola virus), and are increasing significantly over time. We find that 54.3% of EID events are caused by bacteria or rickettsia, reflecting a large number of drug-resistant microbes in our database. Our results confirm that EID origins are significantly correlated with socio-economic, environmental and ecological factors, and provide a basis for identifying regions where new EIDs are most likely to originate (emerging disease 'hotspots'). They also reveal a substantial risk of wildlife zoonotic and vector-borne EIDs originating at lower latitudes where reporting effort is low. We conclude that global resources to counter disease emergence are poorly allocated, with the majority of the scientific and surveillance effort focused on countries from where the next important EID is least likely to originate.
5,992 citations
Cites background from "Emerging Infectious Diseases of Wil..."
...This variable was set to 1 for grid cells where the 1990–2000 human population growth exceeded 25% over the decade, and was set to 0 elsewhere; (3) ‘Latitude’ (absolute latitude of the central point of each grid cell, decimal degrees); (4) ‘Rainfall’26 (average rainfall per year, mm); (5) ‘Wildlife host species richness’....
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...(4) ‘Transmission type’ (TranType): (0) nonzoonotic (disease emerged without involvement of a non-human host); (1) zoonotic (disease emerged via non-human to human transmission, not including vectors)....
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Book•
28 Oct 2007TL;DR: Mathematical modeling of infectious dis-eases has progressed dramatically over the past 3 decades and continues to be a valuable tool at the nexus of mathematics, epidemiol-ogy, and infectious diseases research.
Abstract: By Matthew James Keelingand Pejman RohaniPrinceton, NJ: Princeton University Press,2008.408 pp., Illustrated. $65.00 (hardcover).Mathematical modeling of infectious dis-eases has progressed dramatically over thepast 3 decades and continues to flourishat the nexus of mathematics, epidemiol-ogy, and infectious diseases research. Nowrecognized as a valuable tool, mathemat-ical models are being integrated into thepublic health decision-making processmore than ever before. However, despiterapid advancements in this area, a formaltraining program for mathematical mod-eling is lacking, and there are very fewbooks suitable for a broad readership. Tosupport this bridging science, a commonlanguage that is understood in all con-tributing disciplines is required.
3,467 citations
TL;DR: To improve the ability to predict epidemics in wild populations, it will be necessary to separate the independent and interactive effects of multiple climate drivers on disease impact.
Abstract: Infectious diseases can cause rapid population declines or species extinctions. Many pathogens of terrestrial and marine taxa are sensitive to temperature, rainfall, and humidity, creating synergisms that could affect biodiversity. Climate warming can increase pathogen development and survival rates, disease transmission, and host susceptibility. Although most host-parasite systems are predicted to experience more frequent or severe disease impacts with warming, a subset of pathogens might decline
2,462 citations
TL;DR: It is argued that nascent fungal infections will cause increasing attrition of biodiversity, with wider implications for human and ecosystem health, unless steps are taken to tighten biosecurity worldwide.
Abstract: The past two decades have seen an increasing number of virulent infectious diseases in natural populations and managed landscapes. In both animals and plants, an unprecedented number of fungal and fungal-like diseases have recently caused some of the most severe die-offs and extinctions ever witnessed in wild species, and are jeopardizing food security. Human activity is intensifying fungal disease dispersal by modifying natural environments and thus creating new opportunities for evolution. We argue that nascent fungal infections will cause increasing attrition of biodiversity, with wider implications for human and ecosystem health, unless steps are taken to tighten biosecurity worldwide.
2,408 citations
Cites methods from "Emerging Infectious Diseases of Wil..."
...Data was acquired from the following review sources [1‐9] and...
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TL;DR: This work applies the definition of EIDs used in the medical and veterinary fields to botany and highlights a series of emerging plant diseases, including EIDs of cultivated and wild plants, some of which are of significant conservation concern.
Abstract: Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) pose threats to conservation and public health. Here, we apply the definition of EIDs used in the medical and veterinary fields to botany and highlight a series of emerging plant diseases. We include EIDs of cultivated and wild plants, some of which are of significant conservation concern. The underlying cause of most plant EIDs is the anthropogenic introduction of parasites, although severe weather events are also important drivers of disease emergence. Much is known about crop plant EIDs, but there is little information about wild-plant EIDs, suggesting that their impact on conservation is underestimated. We conclude with recommendations for improving strategies for the surveillance and control of plant EIDs.
1,333 citations
Cites background or methods from "Emerging Infectious Diseases of Wil..."
...The emergence of plant EIDs, similar to those of humans [1], wildlife [ 2 ] and domestic animals [4], is driven mainly by anthropogenic environmental change (such as introductions, farming techniques and habitat disturbance)....
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...Here, we apply previously published definitions of EIDs [1, 2 ] to diseases of plants, analyse the factors that drive their emergence and review their impact on human wellbeing and biodiversity....
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...Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are caused by pathogens that: (i) have increased in incidence, geographical or host range; (ii) have changed pathogenesis; (iii) have newly evolved; or (iv) have been discovered or newly recognized [1, 2 ]....
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...Similar to the agricultural changes that drive human [1] and wildlife [ 2 ] EIDs, the EIDs of cultivated plants are principally driven by increased globalization, socioeconomic development and technological advances (Box 4). In many developing countries, declining market prices for staple crops and the availability of year-round irrigation has promoted increased intensity and acreage of nontraditional crop plants....
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...diseases (EIDs) of wildlife, and a previously underestimated form of anthropogenic environmental change [ 2 ,30,34]....
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References
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors have estimated the current economic value of 17 ecosystem services for 16 biomes, based on published studies and a few original calculations, for the entire biosphere, the value (most of which is outside the market) is estimated to be in the range of US$16-54 trillion (10^(12)) per year, with an average of US $33 trillion per year.
Abstract: The services of ecological systems and the natural capital stocks that produce them are critical to the functioning of the Earth's life-support system. They contribute to human welfare, both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent part of the total economic value of the planet. We have estimated the current economic value of 17 ecosystem services for 16 biomes, based on published studies and a few original calculations. For the entire biosphere, the value (most of which is outside the market) is estimated to be in the range of US$16-54 trillion (10^(12)) per year, with an average of US$33 trillion per year. Because of the nature of the uncertainties, this must be considered a minimum estimate. Global gross national product total is around US$18 trillion per year.
18,139 citations
TL;DR: Human alteration of Earth is substantial and growing as discussed by the authors, between one-third and one-half of the land surface has been transformed by human action; the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere has increased by nearly 30 percent since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution; more atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by humanity than by all natural terrestrial sources combined; more than half of all accessible surface fresh water is put to use by humanity; and about one-quarter of the bird species on Earth have been driven to extinction.
Abstract: Human alteration of Earth is substantial and growing. Between one-third and one-half of the land surface has been transformed by human action; the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere has increased by nearly 30 percent since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution; more atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by humanity than by all natural terrestrial sources combined; more than half of all accessible surface fresh water is put to use by humanity; and about one-quarter of the bird species on Earth have been driven to extinction. By these and other standards, it is clear that we live on a human-dominated planet.
8,831 citations
TL;DR: Surprisingly, there have been surprisingly few analyses of the extent to which each of these factors-much less the more specific deeds encomDavid S. Wilcove is a senior ecologist at the Environmental Defense Fund and David Rothstein re ceived his J.D. in 1997 from Northeastern
Abstract: Biologists are nearly unanimous in their belief that humanity is in the process of extirpating a significant portion of the earth's spe cies. The ways in which we are doing so reflect the magnitude and scale of human enterprise. Everything from highway construction to cattle ranch ing to leaky bait buckets has been implicated in the demise or endan germent of particular species. Ac cording to Wilson (1992), most of these activities fall into four major categories, which he terms "the mind less horsemen of the environmental apocalypse": overexploitation, habi tat destruction, the introduction of non-native (alien) species, and the spread of diseases carried by alien species. To these categories may be added a fifth, pollution, although it can also be considered a form of habitat destruction. Surprisingly, there have been reIa tively few analyses of the extent to which each of these factors-much less the more specific deeds encomDavid S. Wilcove is a senior ecologist at the Environmental Defense Fund, Wash ington, DC 20009. David Rothstein re ceived his J.D. in 1997 from Northeastern
3,122 citations
TL;DR: Consideration is given to the relation between the ecology and evolution of the transmission processes and the overall dynamics, and to the mechanisms that can produce cyclic patterns, or multiple stable states, in the levels of infection in the host population.
Abstract: If the host population is taken to be a dynamic variable (rather than constant, as conventionally assumed), a wider understanding of the population biology of infectious diseases emerges. In this first part of a two-part article, mathematical models are developed, shown to fit data from laboratory experiments, and used to explore the evolutionary relations among transmission parameters. In the second part of the article, to be published in next week's issue, the models are extended to include indirectly transmitted infections, and the general implications for infectious diseases are considered.
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify what seems to be a necessary and necessary starting point for this debate: the clearest possible understanding of how science actually works, and they believe that without such an understanding, one can easily imagine formulating plausible-sounding ethical principles that would be unworkable or damaging to the scientific enterprise.
Abstract: In recent years the difficult question "what
constitutes scientific misconduct?" has troubled
prominent ethicists and scientists and
tied many a blue-ribbon panel in knots. In
teaching an ethics class for graduate and undergraduate
students over the past few years,
we have identified what seems to be a necessary
starting point for this debate: the clearest
possible understanding of how science actually
works. Without such an understanding, we believe,
one can easily imagine formulating
plausible-sounding ethical principles that
would be unworkable or even damaging to
the scientific enterprise.
2,098 citations