Encephalization in Chiroptera
01 May 1970-Canadian Journal of Zoology (NRC Research Press Ottawa, Canada)-Vol. 48, Iss: 3, pp 433-444
TL;DR: TheBrain weights of 51 species of Chiroptera belonging to 10 families were compared using the allometry formula and based on the brain weights of some of the most primitive recent Insectivores.
Abstract: The brain weights of 51 species of Chiroptera belonging to 10 families were compared using the allometry formula and based on the brain weights of some of the most primitive recent Insectivores. Estimates for the degree of encephalization of the various systematic and dietary groups of bats were given in the form of progression indices. A certain amount of between-group overlap was observed.The lowest encephalized group is formed by the Emballonuridae, Molossidae, Vespertilionidae, Rhinolophidae, and Hipposideridae; a median position is occupied by the Nycteridae and Phyllostomatidae; and the highest position by the Desmodontidae and Pteropidae. The Noctilionidae are present in the lowest as well as in the highest groups in relation to differences in feeding habits of the various species. The following ascending order of encephalization was found: insect-eating forms, nectar feeders, frugivorous Microchiroptera, piscivorous species, bloodsuckers, and frugivorous Megachiroptera.The encephalization indices ...
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TL;DR: This chapter discusses the Ecology of Bat Reproduction, Growth and Survival of Bats, and the Ecological Aspects of Bat Activity Rhythms.
Abstract: 1 Roosting Ecology.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Day Roosts.- 2.1. Adaptations for Roosting.- 2.2. Roost Activities and Time Budgets.- 2.3. Roost Fidelity.- 3. Night Roosts.- 3.1. Resting Places.- 3.2. Feeding Perches.- 3.3. Feeding Roosts.- 3.4. Calling Roosts.- 4. Summary.- 5. References.- 2 Ecology of Bat Reproduction.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Timing of Breeding Seasons.- 2.1. Effect of Variations in Latitude.- 2.2. Rainfall and Its Effect on Food Supply.- 3. Environmental Factors Affecting Specific Reproductive Events.- 3.1. Spermatogenesis and Androgenesis.- 3.2. Estrus and Ovulation.- 3.3. Mating.- 3.4. Delayed Fertilization.- 3.5. Pregnancy and Lactation.- 3.6. Environmental Factors Affecting the Growth and Survival of Young.- 3.7. Puberty and Subsequent Fertility and Fecundity.- 4. Summary.- 5. References.- 3 Growth and Survival of Bats.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Prenatal Growth and Development.- 2.1. Length of Gestation.- 2.2. Time and Synchrony of Parturition.- 2.3. Developmental State at Birth.- 2.4. Litter Size.- 3. Postnatal Growth and Development.- 3.1. Preflight..- 3.2. Postflight.- 4. Survival.- 4.1. Survival Analyses and Results.- 4.2. Survival Determinants.- 4.3. Survival Strategies.- 5. Summary.- 6. References.- 4 Evolutionary Alternatives in the Physiological Ecology of Bats.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. The Significance of Physiology to the Ecology of Bats.- 1.2. The Significance of Bats for Physiological Ecology.- 2. The Energetics of Bats.- 2.1. Factors Determining the Energy Expenditure of Bats.- 2.2. Ecological Significance of Energetics for Bats.- 2.3. Energy Budgets.- 2.4. The Evolution of Bat Energetics.- 3. The Water Balance of Bats.- 3.1. Kidney Function.- 3.2. Balancing a Water Budget.- 4. Distributional Limits to Bats.- 4.1. Temperate Limits of Tropical Bats.- 4.2. Limits to Distribution in Temperate Bats.- 5. Summary.- 6. References.- 5 Ecological Aspects of Bat Activity Rhythms.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods for Recording the Activity of Bats.- 3. Activity Patterns and Timing of Flight Activity under Natural and Controlled Conditions.- 3.1. Activity Patterns.- 3.2. Arousal and Timing of Flight Activity.- 3.3. Light-Sampling Behavior.- 3.4. Influence of External Factors on Activity Rhythms.- 4. Activity Rhythms during Hibernation.- 5. The Endogenous Origin of Bat Activity Rhythms.- 5.1. Circadian Activity Rhythms.- 5.2. Susceptibility of Period to Exogenous Influences.- 5.3. The Phase Response of Circadian Activity Rhythms to Light Pulses.- 5.4. Entrainment of Circadian Rhythms.- 5.5. Range of Entrainment and Speed of Resynchronization.- 6. Ecological Adaptation of Circadian Systems and Evolutionary Aspects.- 7. Summary.- 8. References.- 6 Ecological Significance of Chiropteran Morphology.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Trophic Niche.- 2.1. Flight and Wing Morphology.- 2.2. Jaw Morphology and Diet.- 2.3. Brain Size.- 2.4. General Morphology and Feeding.- 3. Morphology and Community Structure.- 3.1. Species Packing in Temperate versus Tropical-Bat Communities.- 3.2. Results from Principal-Components Analyses.- 4. Sexual Dimorphism.- 5. Geographic Variation.- 6. Summary.- 7. References.- 7 Echolocation, Insect Hearing, and Feeding Ecology of Insectivorous Bats.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Echolocation Calls.- 2.1. Call Structure.- 2.2. Intensity.- 2.3. Frequency.- 2.4. Pulse Repetition Rates.- 2.5. Harmonics,.- 2.6. Effective Range.- 3. Hearing and Insect Defense.- 4. Responses of Bats to Insect Hearing.- 5. Bats as Specialists.- 5.1. By Time.- 5.2. By Diet.- 5.3. By Foraging Strategy.- 5.4. By Space.- 5.5. By Morphology.- 5.6. As Rapid Feeders.- 6. Other Considerations.- 7. Summary.- 8. References.- 8 Foraging Strategies of Plant-Visiting Bats.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Food Availability and General Foraging Strategies.- 2.1. Food Availability.- 2.2. General Foraging Strategies.- 3. The Foraging Behavior of Plant-Visiting Bats.- 3.1. Food Habits and Diet Breadth.- 3.2. Foraging Behavior.- 3.3. Case Histories.- 4. Summary and General Conclusions.- 5. References.- 9 Coevolution between Bats and Plants.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Coupled Speciation.- 2.1. Evolutionary Origins of Frugivory and Nectarivory.- 2.2. Effects of Bats on Plant Diversification.- 2.3. Coupled Speciation through Coevolution?.- 3. Complex Coadaptations between Bats and Plants.- 3.1. Coadaptations:.- 3.2. Flexibility and Diffuse Coevolution.- 3.3. The Search for Order: Pollination and Dispersal Syndromes.- 4. Ecological Consequences of Bat-Plant Interactions.- 4.1. Variation in Effects.- 4.2. Demographic Effects?.- 4.3. Community Effects.- 5. Does Coevolution "Matter"?.- 6. Summary.- 7. References.- 10 Ecology of Insects Ectoparasitic on Bats.- 1. Introduction.- 2. LifeCycles.- 2.1. Patterns.- 2.2. Food and Feeding.- 2.3. Influence of Climate and Host Hibernation.- 2.4. Causes of Mortality.- 2.5. Number of Generations per Year.- 3. Host Associations.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.2. Patterns.- 3.3. Reasons.- 4. Host Location and Dispersal.- 4.1. Locomotion.- 4.2. Initial Location and Transference between Hosts.- 5. Behavior on or Near the Host.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. Patterns.- 5.3. Ectoparasites and Host Health.- 6. Population Dynamics.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. Patterns and Limits.- 6.3. Age Structure.- 6.4. Sex Ratio.- 6.5. Changes in Abundance with Space and Time.- 7. Conclusions.- 8. Appendix.- 9. References.- Author Index.- Species Index.
517 citations
TL;DR: The paper examines systematic relationships among primates between brain size (relative to body size) and differences in ecology and social system and the adaptive significance of these relationships is discussed.
Abstract: The paper examines systematic relationships among primates between brain size (relative to body size) and differences in ecology and social system. Marked differences in relative brain size exist between families. These are correlated with inter-family differences in body size and home range size. Variation in comparative brain size within families is related to diet (folivores have comparatively smaller brains than frugivores), home range size and possibly also to breeding system. The adaptive significance of these relationships is discussed.
497 citations
TL;DR: A phylogenetic tree, derived from marsupial brain morphology data, is compared to trees depicting the evolution of diet, sociability, locomotion, and habitat in these animals, as well as their taxonomy and geographical relationships.
Abstract: This paper has two complementary purposes: first, to present a method to perform multiple regression on distance matrices, with permutation testing appropriate for path-length matrices representing evolutionary trees, and then, to apply this method to study the joint evolution of brain, behavior and other characteristics in marsupials. To understand the computation method, consider that the dependent matrix is unfolded as a vector y; similarly, consider X to be a table containing the independent matrices, also unfolded as vectors. A multiple regression is computed to express y as a function of X. The parameters of this regression (R2 and partial regression coefficients) are tested by permutations, as follows. When the dependent matrix variable y represents a simple distance or similarity matrix, permutations are performed in the same manner as the Mantel permutational test. When it is an ultrametric matrix representing a dendrogram, we use the double-permutation method (Lapointe and Legendre 1990, 1991). When it is a path-length matrix representing an additive tree (cladogram), we use the triple-permutation method (Lapointe and Legendre 1992). The independent matrix variables in X are kept fixed with respect to one another during the permutations. Selection of predictors can be accomplished by forward selection, backward elimination, or a stepwise procedure. A phylogenetic tree, derived from marsupial brain morphology data (28 species), is compared to trees depicting the evolution of diet, sociability, locomotion, and habitat in these animals, as well as their taxonomy and geographical relationships. A model is derived in which brain evolution can be predicted from taxonomy, diet, sociability and locomotion (R2 = 0.75). A new tree, derived from the "predicted" data, shows a lot of similarity to the brain evolution tree. The meaning of the taxonomy, diet, sociability, and locomotion predictors are discussed and conclusions are drawn about the evolution of brain and behavior in marsupials.
446 citations
TL;DR: It is argued that adaptation should be defined by its effects rather than by its causes as any difference between two phenotypic traits (or trait complexes) which increases the inclusive fitness of its carrier.
Abstract: It has sometimes been suggested that the term adaptation should be reserved for differences with a known genetic basis. We argue that adaptation should be defined by its effects rather than by its causes as any difference between two phenotypic traits (or trait complexes) which increases the inclusive fitness of its carrier. This definition implies that some adaptations may arise by means other than natural selection. It is particularly important to bear this in mind when behavioural traits are considered. Critics of the 'adaptationist programme' have suggested that an important objection to many adaptive explanations is that they rely on ad-hoc arguments concerning the function of previously observed differences. We suggest that this is a less important problem (because evolutionary explanations generally claim some sort of generality and are therefore testable) than the difficulties arising from confounding variables. These are more widespread and more subtle than is generally appreciated. Not all differences between organisms are directly adapted to ecological variation. The form of particular traits usually constrains the form of value that other traits can take, presenting several obstacles to attempts to relate variation in morphological or behavioural characteristics directly to environmental differences. We describe some of the repercussions of differences in body size among vertebrates and ways in which these can be allowed for. In addition, a variety of evolutionary processes can produce non-adaptive differences between organisms. One way of distinguishing between these and adaptations is to investigate adaptive trends in phylogenetically different groups of species.
261 citations
Cites background from "Encephalization in Chiroptera"
...…to measure deviations from this regression line: relations between these deviations and ecological variables can then be examined (see, for example, Pirlot & Stephan 1970; Eisenberg & Wilson I979)* However, for deviation measurements to be biologically meaningful, we need to solve two further…...
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