Entertainment as Pleasurable and Meaningful: Identifying Hedonic and Eudaimonic Motivations for Entertainment Consumption
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors conceptualized and developed measures to illustrate that entertainment can be used as a means of experiencing not only enjoyment, but also as a mean of grappling with questions such as life's purpose and human meaningfulness.
Abstract: The purpose of this research is to broaden the conceptualization of entertainment selection to identify not only pleasure-seeking (hedonic concerns) as a motivator, but to also recognize that individuals may choose media as a means of ‘‘truth-seeking’’ (eudaimonic concerns). This article conceptualized and developed measures to illustrate that entertainment can be used as a means of experiencing not only enjoyment, but also as a means of grappling with questions such as life’s purpose and human meaningfulness. Four studies were conducted in the development of these measures, providing evidence for their validity in terms of entertainment preference and individual differences, and illustrating how these motivations predict preferences for entertainment that elicits unique affective experiences.
Citations
More filters
TL;DR: By mapping the potential benefits of emotion to key human motives, the proposed taxonomy identifies key classes of motives in emotion regulation and offers important implications for understanding the mechanism of emotion regulation, variation across individuals and contexts, and psychological function and dysfunction.
Abstract: Emotion regulation involves the pursuit of desired emotional states (i.e., emotion goals) in the service of superordinate motives. The nature and consequences of emotion regulation, therefore, are likely to depend on the motives it is intended to serve. Nonetheless, limited attention has been devoted to studying what motivates emotion regulation. By mapping the potential benefits of emotion to key human motives, this review identifies key classes of motives in emotion regulation. The proposed taxonomy distinguishes between hedonic motives that target the immediate phenomenology of emotions, and instrumental motives that target other potential benefits of emotions. Instrumental motives include behavioral, epistemic, social, and eudaimonic motives. The proposed taxonomy offers important implications for understanding the mechanism of emotion regulation, variation across individuals and contexts, and psychological function and dysfunction, and points to novel research directions.
386 citations
Cites background from "Entertainment as Pleasurable and Me..."
...Interestingly, forms of entertainment that elicit more negative and mixed emotions are perceived as more meaningful and are pursued, at least in part, for that very reason (Oliver & Raney, 2011)....
[...]
...Consistent with this possibility, people report being drawn to emotion-eliciting forms of entertainment to attain eudaimonic benefits, such as a sense of meaning (Oliver & Raney, 2011)....
[...]
...People who seek emotional stimulation, in turn, tend to endorse eudaimonic motives as determinants of their preferences for emotion-inducing forms of entertainment (Oliver & Raney, 2011)....
[...]
TL;DR: A gameful design method is introduced that uses skill atoms and design lenses to identify challenges inherent in a user’s goal pursuit and restructure them to afford gameplay-characteristic motivating, enjoyable experiences.
Abstract: The idea that game design can inspire the design of motivating, enjoyable interactive systems has a long history in human-computer interaction. It currently experiences a renaissance as gameful design, often implemented through gamification, the use of game design elements in nongame contexts. Yet there is little research-based guidance on designing gameful systems. This article therefore reviews existing methods and identifies challenges and requirements for gameful design. It introduces a gameful design method that uses skill atoms and design lenses to identify challenges inherent in a user’s goal pursuit and restructure them to afford gameplay-characteristic motivating, enjoyable experiences. Two case studies illustrate the method. The article closes by outlining how gameful design might inform experience-driven design more generally.
377 citations
Cites background from "Entertainment as Pleasurable and Me..."
...…PENS with mood management theory (users selecting media to optimize arousal and affect) and appreciation (the satisfaction of eudaimonic needs for meaningfulness and insight), and have found first empirical support for their superior explanatory power (Oliver & Raney, 2011; Reinecke et al., 2012)....
[...]
TL;DR: Empirical progress in testing the reinforcing spirals model is discussed, misconceptions that have arisen are addressed, and elaborated illustrations of the model are provided.
Abstract: The Reinforcing Spirals Model (RSM, Citation Withheld) has two primary purposes. First, the RSM provides a general framework for conceptualizing media use as part of a dynamic, endogenous process combining selective exposure and media effects that may be drawn on by theorists concerned with a variety of social processes and effects. Second, the RSM utilizes a systems-theory perspective to describe how patterns of mediated and interpersonal communication contribute to the development and maintenance of social identities and ideology as well as more transient attitudes and related behaviors, and how those outcomes may influence subsequent media use. The RSM suggests contingencies that may lead to homeostasis or encourage certain individuals or groups to extreme polarization of such attitudes. In addition, the RSM proposes social cognitive mechanisms that may be responsible for attitude maintenance and reinforcement. This article discusses empirical progress in testing the model, addresses misconceptions that have arisen, and provides elaborated illustrations of the model. The article also identifies potentially fruitful directions for further conceptual development and empirical testing of the RSM.
188 citations
Cites background from "Entertainment as Pleasurable and Me..."
...374 personal meaning (Knobloch, 2003; Oliver & Raney, 2011; Zillmann, 1988), which are likely to result in exposure to attitudes about the world inconsistent with one’s own....
[...]
TL;DR: This paper examined the notion of eudaimonic entertainment during exposure to a sad but meaningful movie, using a new measure consisting of 5 dimensions derived from research on positive psychology, and showed that hedonic entertainment measures were affected by the manipulation, but that eudaimononic entertainment measures are unaffected.
Abstract: We examine the notion of eudaimonic entertainment during exposure to a sad but meaningful movie, using a new measure consisting of 5 dimensions derived from research on positive psychology. We, thereby, transfer the conception of eudaimonic well-being to the conception of entertainment. Results of a confirmatory factor analysis show that the 5 dimensions can be further condensed into 2 second-order factors. We applied these new measures in a study in which the ending of a movie was manipulated (sad vs. happy). The results provide both discriminant and convergent validity and show that hedonic entertainment measures were affected by the manipulation, but that eudaimonic entertainment measures were unaffected. A second study provided further evidence for the validity of the construct.
187 citations
TL;DR: This article found that many types of meaningful cinematic entertainment feature portrayals of moral virtues (e.g., altruism) that elicit feelings of elevation that are signified in terms of mixed affect and unique physical responses.
Abstract: Media psychologists have long puzzled over how individuals can experience enjoyment from entertainment such as tragedies that often elicit profound feelings of sadness. The present research examines the idea that a focus on “meaningful” entertainment and affective responses identified as “elevation” may provide a framework for understanding many examples of sad or dramatic entertainment. The results of this study suggest that many types of meaningful cinematic entertainment feature portrayals of moral virtues (e.g., altruism). These portrayals, in turn, elicit feelings of elevation (e.g., inspiration) that are signified in terms of mixed affect and unique physical responses (e.g., lump in throat). Ultimately, elevation also gives rise to motivations to embody moral virtues, such as being a better person or helping others.
170 citations
Cites background from "Entertainment as Pleasurable and Me..."
...Items were drawn from a variety of sources with the intention of including items that would represent meaningful affect (reflecting elevation), positive affect, and negative affect (Algoe & Haidt, 2009; Edell & Burke, 1987; Oliver, 2008; Oliver & Raney, 2011; Schnall et al., 2010)....
[...]
...Specifically, Oliver and Raney (2011) argued that sad films, rather than being understood as particularly nonhedonic, might better be understood, at least in part, as fulfilling needs associated with greater insight, wisdom, or meaning-in-life (i.e., eudaimonic) concerns....
[...]
References
More filters
TL;DR: Research guided by self-determination theory has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development, leading to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
Abstract: Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theo~ has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatednesswhich when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy. T he fullest representations of humanity show people to be curious, vital, and self-motivated. At their best, they are agentic and inspired, striving to learn; extend themselves; master new skills; and apply their talents responsibly. That most people show considerable effort, agency, and commitment in their lives appears, in fact, to be more normative than exceptional, suggesting some very positive and persistent features of human nature. Yet, it is also clear that the human spirit can be diminished or crushed and that individuals sometimes reject growth and responsibility. Regardless of social strata or cultural origin, examples of both children and adults who are apathetic, alienated, and irresponsible are abundant. Such non-optimal human functioning can be observed not only in our psychological clinics but also among the millions who, for hours a day, sit passively before their televisions, stare blankly from the back of their classrooms, or wait listlessly for the weekend as they go about their jobs. The persistent, proactive, and positive tendencies of human nature are clearly not invariantly apparent. The fact that human nature, phenotypically expressed, can be either active or passive, constructive or indolent, suggests more than mere dispositional differences and is a function of more than just biological endowments. It also bespeaks a wide range of reactions to social environments that is worthy of our most intense scientific investigation. Specifically, social contexts catalyze both within- and between-person differences in motivation and personal growth, resulting in people being more self-motivated, energized, and integrated in some situations, domains, and cultures than in others. Research on the conditions that foster versus undermine positive human potentials has both theoretical import and practical significance because it can contribute not only to formal knowledge of the causes of human behavior but also to the design of social environments that optimize people's development, performance, and well-being. Research guided by self-determination theory (SDT) has had an ongoing concern with precisely these
29,115 citations
"Entertainment as Pleasurable and Me..." refers background in this paper
...…(Bartsch, Vorderer, Mangold, & Reinhold, 2008), and others have suggested that enjoyment is a reflection of the fulfillment of intrinsic needs (Tamborini, Bowman, Eden, & Grizzard, 2010), including ‘‘higher-order’’ needs such as those identified in self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000)....
[...]
Book•
01 Jan 1991TL;DR: In this article, the effects of predictor scaling on the coefficients of regression equations are investigated. But, they focus mainly on the effect of predictors scaling on coefficients of regressions.
Abstract: Introduction Interactions between Continuous Predictors in Multiple Regression The Effects of Predictor Scaling on Coefficients of Regression Equations Testing and Probing Three-Way Interactions Structuring Regression Equations to Reflect Higher Order Relationships Model and Effect Testing with Higher Order Terms Interactions between Categorical and Continuous Variables Reliability and Statistical Power Conclusion Some Contrasts Between ANOVA and MR in Practice
27,897 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors pointed out that there is a strong functional tie between opinions and abilities in humans and that the ability evaluation of an individual can be expressed as a comparison of the performance of a particular ability with other abilities.
Abstract: Hypothesis I: There exists, in the human organism, a drive to evaluate his opinions and his abilities. While opinions and abilities may, at first glance, seem to be quite different things, there is a close functional tie between them. They act together in the manner in which they affect behavior. A person’s cognition (his opinions and beliefs) about the situation in which he exists and his appraisals of what he is capable of doing (his evaluation of his abilities) will together have bearing on his behavior. The holding of incorrect opinions and/or inaccurate appraisals of one’s abilities can be punishing or even fatal in many situations. It is necessary, before we proceed, to clarify the distinction between opinions and evaluations of abilities since at first glance it may seem that one’s evaluation of one’s own ability is an opinion about it. Abilities are of course manifested only through performance which is assumed to depend upon the particular ability. The clarity of the manifestation or performance can vary from instances where there is no clear ordering criterion of the ability to instances where the performance which reflects the ability can be clearly ordered. In the former case, the evaluation of the ability does function like other opinions which are not directly testable in “objective reality’. For example, a person’s evaluation of his ability to write poetry will depend to a large extent on the opinions which others have of his ability to write poetry. In cases where the criterion is unambiguous and can be clearly ordered, this furnishes an objective reality for the evaluation of one’s ability so that it depends less on the opinions of other persons and depends more on actual comparison of one’s performance with the performance of others. Thus, if a person evaluates his running ability, he will do so by comparing his time to run some distance with the times that other persons have taken. In the following pages, when we talk about evaluating an ability, we shall mean specifically the evaluation of that ability in situations where the performance is unambiguous and is known. Most situations in real life will, of course, present situations which are a mixture of opinion and ability evaluation. In a previous article (7) the author posited the existence of a drive to determine whether or not one’s opinions were “correct”. We are here stating that this same drive also produces behavior in people oriented toward obtaining an accurate appraisal of their abilities. The behavioral implication of the existence of such a drive is that we would expect to observe behaviour on the part of persons which enables them to ascertain whether or not their opinions are correct and also behavior which enables them accurately to evaluate their abilities. It is consequently
16,927 citations
"Entertainment as Pleasurable and Me..." refers background in this paper
...Downward social comparison (Festinger, 1954) suggests that downtrodden viewers may feel better through comparison to similar others in circumstances worse than their own (Mares & Cantor, 1992)....
[...]
TL;DR: In this article, multiple regression is used to test and interpret multiple regression interactions in the context of multiple-agent networks. But it is not suitable for single-agent systems, as discussed in this paper.
Abstract: (1994). Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. Journal of the Operational Research Society: Vol. 45, No. 1, pp. 119-120.
13,068 citations
"Entertainment as Pleasurable and Me..." refers methods in this paper
...Subsequent simple slopes analysis (Aiken & West, 1991) revealed that happy-only affect was a significant predictor of meaningful affect, but only at higher levels of sad-only affect (1 SD above the mean, β = .16, p .001) rather than at lower levels of sadness (1 SD below the mean, β = .03, p =…...
[...]