Exposure Assessment to Heavy Metals in the Environment: Measures to Eliminate or Reduce the Exposure to Critical Receptors
01 Jan 2011-pp 27-50
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on the review and analysis of the principal sources of heavy metals emissions into the environment and their role in critical receptors' environmental exposure, and provide a clearer picture of the situation: the potential regions at risk and the extension of the contamination.
Abstract: The anthropogenic sources for heavy metals include mining, industrial productions, untreated sewage sludge and combustion by-products produced by coal burning power plants. Atmospheric emissions are probably the most preoccupant to human health and to the environment due to either the great quantity involved, or their widespread dispersion. Mercury, lead and cadmium represent a great issue, mostly due to their ability to travel long distances in the atmosphere before deposition. Exposure assessment to emissions of heavy metals implies to identify and quantify the sources, how heavy metals may be dispersed in the environment and which adverse effects they might cause on human health and on the ecosystem. Heavy metals emissions and releases into the environment are available at the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (E-PRTR, 2010). In this data base main sources from 27 European countries are identified. Data concerning Cd, Hg and Pb were extracted for the year of 2007. This work focuses on the review and analysis of the principal sources of heavy metals emissions into the environment and their role in critical receptors’ environmental exposure. The review of the principal sources may give a clearer picture of the situation: the potential regions at risk and the extension of the contamination, essential to the exposure assessment by critical receptors. On the other hand, exposure assessments studies and consequent research allow a better knowledge of heavy metals sources, emissions, pathways and fate in the environment. Therefore both a complete exposure assessment and a consequent risk assessment are needed to establish the identification and implementation of measures to eliminate or to reduce the exposure.
Citations
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TL;DR: This is the first review regarding biogeochemical behaviour of heavy metals in atmosphere-plant system and summarizes the mechanisms involved in foliar heavy metal uptake, transfer, compartmentation, toxicity and in plant detoxification.
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TL;DR: A review of recent investigations involving heavy metal accumulation by medicinal plants and its effects on elicitation of secondary metabolites, toxicity and detoxification pathways, international standards regarding in plants and plant-based products, and human health risk assessment of heavy metals in soil-medicinal plants systems is presented in this article.
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TL;DR: The results suggest that nZVI can be effectively used for the removal of cadmium from contaminated water sources with varying chemical conditions.
Abstract: Nano zerovalent iron (nZVI) is an effective remediant for removing various organic and inorganic pollutants from contaminated water sources. Batch experiments were conducted to characterize the nZVI surface and to investigate the effects of various solution properties such as pH, initial cadmium concentration, sorbent dosage, ionic strength, and competitive ions on cadmium removal by nZVI. Energy-dispersive X-ray and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy results confirmed removal of Cd2+ ions by nZVI through adsorption. Cd2+ adsorption decreased in the presence of competitive cations in the order: Zn2+ > Co2+ > Mg2+ > Mn2+ = Cu2+ > Ca2+ > Na2+ = K+. Higher concentrations of Cl− significantly decreased the adsorption. Cadmium removal increased with solution pH and reached a maximum at pH 8.0. The effects of various solution properties indicated Cd2+ adsorption on nZVI to be a chemisorption (inner-sphere complexation) process. The three surface complexation models (diffuse layer model, constant capacitance model, and triple layer model) fitted well to the adsorption edge experimental data indicating the formation of nZVI–Cd bidentate inner-sphere surface complexes. Our results suggest that nZVI can be effectively used for the removal of cadmium from contaminated water sources with varying chemical conditions.
170 citations
Cites background from "Exposure Assessment to Heavy Metals..."
...…either from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires or from anthropogenic activities such as non-ferrous metals production, electroplating, manufacturing of Ni-Cd batteries and pigments, application of phosphatic fertilizers, and burning of fossil fuels (Dinis and Fiuza 2011)....
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TL;DR: In this article, the concentration levels of trace metals of toxicological importance were evaluated in the total suspended particles (TSP) and particulate matter smaller than 2.5μm (PM2.5 ) collected in the metropolitan area of Monterrey (MAM) in Mexico.
43 citations
TL;DR: A continued reduction of dietary exposure to these elements was observed when comparing the results from the current and previous studies performed, and it is necessary to conduct further periodical surveys, paying special attention to the trend in the intake of Cd and MeHg.
41 citations
References
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TL;DR: Recent data indicate that adverse health effects of cadmium exposure may occur at lower exposure levels than previously anticipated, primarily in the form of kidney damage but possibly also bone effects and fractures, and measures should be taken to reduce cadmiam exposure in the general population in order to minimize the risk of adverse health results.
Abstract: The main threats to human health from heavy metals are associated with exposure to lead, cadmium, mercury and arsenic. These metals have been extensively studied and their effects on human health regularly reviewed by international bodies such as the WHO. Heavy metals have been used by humans for thousands of years. Although several adverse health effects of heavy metals have been known for a long time, exposure to heavy metals continues, and is even increasing in some parts of the world, in particular in less developed countries, though emissions have declined in most developed countries over the last 100 years. Cadmium compounds are currently mainly used in re-chargeable nickel-cadmium batteries. Cadmium emissions have increased dramatically during the 20th century, one reason being that cadmium-containing products are rarely re-cycled, but often dumped together with household waste. Cigarette smoking is a major source of cadmium exposure. In non-smokers, food is the most important source of cadmium exposure. Recent data indicate that adverse health effects of cadmium exposure may occur at lower exposure levels than previously anticipated, primarily in the form of kidney damage but possibly also bone effects and fractures. Many individuals in Europe already exceed these exposure levels and the margin is very narrow for large groups. Therefore, measures should be taken to reduce cadmium exposure in the general population in order to minimize the risk of adverse health effects. The general population is primarily exposed to mercury via food, fish being a major source of methyl mercury exposure, and dental amalgam. The general population does not face a significant health risk from methyl mercury, although certain groups with high fish consumption may attain blood levels associated with a low risk of neurological damage to adults. Since there is a risk to the fetus in particular, pregnant women should avoid a high intake of certain fish, such as shark, swordfish and tuna; fish (such as pike, walleye and bass) taken from polluted fresh waters should especially be avoided. There has been a debate on the safety of dental amalgams and claims have been made that mercury from amalgam may cause a variety of diseases. However, there are no studies so far that have been able to show any associations between amalgam fillings and ill health. The general population is exposed to lead from air and food in roughly equal proportions. During the last century, lead emissions to ambient air have caused considerable pollution, mainly due to lead emissions from petrol. Children are particularly susceptible to lead exposure due to high gastrointestinal uptake and the permeable blood-brain barrier. Blood levels in children should be reduced below the levels so far considered acceptable, recent data indicating that there may be neurotoxic effects of lead at lower levels of exposure than previously anticipated. Although lead in petrol has dramatically decreased over the last decades, thereby reducing environmental exposure, phasing out any remaining uses of lead additives in motor fuels should be encouraged. The use of lead-based paints should be abandoned, and lead should not be used in food containers. In particular, the public should be aware of glazed food containers, which may leach lead into food. Exposure to arsenic is mainly via intake of food and drinking water, food being the most important source in most populations. Long-term exposure to arsenic in drinking-water is mainly related to increased risks of skin cancer, but also some other cancers, as well as other skin lesions such as hyperkeratosis and pigmentation changes. Occupational exposure to arsenic, primarily by inhalation, is causally associated with lung cancer. Clear exposure-response relationships and high risks have been observed.
5,015 citations
"Exposure Assessment to Heavy Metals..." refers background in this paper
...Animal tests have shown that cadmium may be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (Jarup, 2003)....
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...Cadmium compounds are used in PVC stabilizers (essential additives in processing PVC resins), colour pigments, several alloys and more commonly in Ni-Cd batteries (Jarup, 2003)....
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...Cadmium is also present in volcanic activities and forest fires which have been reported as natural sources of cadmium air emissions (Jarup, 2003)....
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...Foodstuff may be contaminated by atmospheric deposition of airborne lead or by irrigation with contaminated water (Jarup, 2003)....
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...In ancient Greece mercury was used as a cosmetic to lighten the skin (Jarup, 2003): in some sub-Saharan African countries the use of cosmetic products to bleach or to lighten the skin is still frequent....
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31 Dec 1990
TL;DR: The Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) is a human health assessment program that evaluates quantitative and qualitative risk information on effects that may result from exposure to environmental contaminants.
Abstract: The Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) is a human health assessment program that evaluates quantitative and qualitative risk information on effects that may result from exposure to environmental contaminants. IRIS was initially developed for EPA staff in response to a growing demand for consistent information on substances for use in risk assessments, decision-making, and regulatory activities. The information in IRIS is intended for those without extensive training in toxicology, but with some knowledge of health sciences.
1,158 citations
01 Jan 2010
TL;DR: In this article, the authors called for a stronger focus of UNEP on six key activities - climate change, disasters and conflicts, ecosystem management, environmental governance, harmful substances and hazardous waste, resource efficiency - and some financial and organizational changes.
Abstract: Apart from its headquarters in Nairobi, UNEP has some regional offices: New York (North America), Geneva (Europe), Bangkok (Asia-Pacific), Mexico City (Latin America/Caribbean), Bahrain (West Asia), and Nairobi (Africa). UNEP has increasingly initiated new forms of cooperation, not only with governments but also with the private sector, in particular the financial sector. In Paris UNEP maintains an Industry and Environment Unit coordinating UNEP's Sustainable Production and Consumption Programme which focuses on such cooperative operations. At the 10th Special Session of the GC in 2008 in Monaco, Achim Steiner presented the Draft UNEP Medium-Term Strategy for 2010-2013. This paper called for a stronger focus of UNEP on six key activities - climate change, disasters and conflicts, ecosystem management, environmental governance, harmful substances and hazardous waste, resource efficiency - and some financial and organizational changes. Keywords: climate change; ecosystem management; environmental governance; organizational changes; resource efficiency; United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
603 citations
TL;DR: A thorough review of the field of exposure assessment is presented, including a discussion of the terminology used in exposure assessment, a description of how to quantitatively estimate dose for the major sources of exposure (food, water, air, and soil), and many of the best sources of information.
Abstract: Each of us encounters hundreds of toxic agents everyday, without exposure and subsequent absorption (uptake) however, there is no risk of injury. Thus, exposure assessment is one of the three legs of the stool (along with toxicity assessment and dose-response assessment) upon which the practice of risk assessment rests. The field of exposure assessment has evolved out of at least 3 other disciplines over the past 50 years, including health physics, industrial hygiene, and epidemiology. Exposure assessments are a necessary component to understanding the hazard posed by exposure to naturally (e.g., aflatoxins in foods, radon in air) and nonnaturally occurring toxicants (e.g., benzene in groundwater, MTBE in air, and food additives). This article presents a thorough review of the field, including a discussion of the terminology used in exposure assessment, a description of how to quantitatively estimate dose for the major sources of exposure (food, water, air, and soil), and many of the best sources of infor...
274 citations
"Exposure Assessment to Heavy Metals..." refers background in this paper
...…are associated with a specific exposure route (for instance, lung cancer is related with inhalation), however, most health effects associated with heavy metals exposure affect the whole body and not just a specific route of exposure, although it may influence the systemic dose (Paustenbach, 2000)....
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...The chemical speciation of metals to which humans are exposed in ambient air, drinking water or diet is not considered in dose assessment due to the lack of information (Paustenbach, 2000)....
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80 citations
"Exposure Assessment to Heavy Metals..." refers background or methods in this paper
...In 1996 the U.S. EPA started to include mixture of chemicals in its risk assessment for pesticides that have the same mode of action; however, this limitation has again the same additive effect for mixtures (Hinton and Aizawa, number of options for consideration (Hinton and Aizawa, 2007)....
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...Collaborative funding calls and joint proposals among several countries will surely allow a more rapid and efficient research on this difficult issue (Hinton and Aizawa, 2007)....
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...Due to the lack of data, ATSDR applies an additional safety factor of 10 for mixtures of non-cancerous chemicals and 100 for cancerous chemicals mixtures (Hinton and Aizawa, 2007)....
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...This means that we still lack adequate data, methods and models to assess multiple exposures and consequently to evaluate the risk to which receptors are exposed (Hinton and Aizawa, 2007)....
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