scispace - formally typeset
Search or ask a question
Journal ArticleDOI

Ferroelectric ceramics : History and technology

01 Apr 1999-Journal of the American Ceramic Society (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd)-Vol. 82, Iss: 4, pp 797-818
TL;DR: Ferroelectric ceramics have been the heart and soul of several multibillion dollar industries, ranging from high-dielectric-constant capacitors to later developments in piezoelectric transducers, positive temperature coefficient devices, and electrooptic light valves as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Ferroelectric ceramics were born in the early 1940s with the discovery of the phenomenon of ferroelectricity as the source of the unusually high dielectric constant in ceramic barium titanate capacitors. Since that time, they have been the heart and soul of several multibillion dollar industries, ranging from high-dielectric-constant capacitors to later developments in piezoelectric transducers, positive temperature coefficient devices, and electrooptic light valves. Materials based on two compositional systems, barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate, have dominated the field throughout their history. The more recent developments in the field of ferroelectric ceramics, such as medical ultrasonic composites, high-displacement piezoelectric actuators (Moonies, RAINBOWS), photostrictors, and thin and thick films for piezoelectric and integrated-circuit applications have served to keep the industry young amidst its growing maturity. Various ceramic formulations, their form (bulk, films), fabrication, function (properties), and future are described in relation to their ferroelectric nature and specific areas of application.

Content maybe subject to copyright    Report

Citations
More filters
Journal ArticleDOI
04 Nov 2004-Nature
TL;DR: A lead-free piezoelectric ceramic with an electric-field-induced strain comparable to typical actuator-grade PZT is reported, achieved through the combination of the discovery of a morphotropic phase boundary in an alkaline niobate-based perovskite solid solution, and the development of a processing route leading to highly textured polycrystals.
Abstract: Lead has recently been expelled from many commercial applications and materials (for example, from solder, glass and pottery glaze) owing to concerns regarding its toxicity. Lead zirconium titanate (PZT) ceramics are high-performance piezoelectric materials, which are widely used in sensors, actuators and other electronic devices; they contain more than 60 weight per cent lead. Although there has been a concerted effort to develop lead-free piezoelectric ceramics, no effective alternative to PZT has yet been found. Here we report a lead-free piezoelectric ceramic with an electric-field-induced strain comparable to typical actuator-grade PZT. We achieved this through the combination of the discovery of a morphotropic phase boundary in an alkaline niobate-based perovskite solid solution, and the development of a processing route leading to highly textured polycrystals. The ceramic exhibits a piezoelectric constant d33 (the induced charge per unit force applied in the same direction) of above 300 picocoulombs per newton (pC N(-1)), and texturing the material leads to a peak d33 of 416 pC N(-1). The textured material also exhibits temperature-independent field-induced strain characteristics.

4,689 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, general guidelines for the development of lead-free piezoelectric ceramics are presented, ranging from atom to phase diagram, and the current development stage in lead free piezoceramics is then critically assessed.
Abstract: A large body of work has been reported in the last 5 years on the development of lead-free piezoceramics in the quest to replace lead–zirconate–titanate (PZT) as the main material for electromechanical devices such as actuators, sensors, and transducers. In specific but narrow application ranges the new materials appear adequate, but are not yet suited to replace PZT on a broader basis. In this paper, general guidelines for the development of lead-free piezoelectric ceramics are presented. Suitable chemical elements are selected first on the basis of cost and toxicity as well as ionic polarizability. Different crystal structures with these elements are then considered based on simple concepts, and a variety of phase diagrams are described with attractive morphotropic phase boundaries, yielding good piezoelectric properties. Finally, lessons from density functional theory are reviewed and used to adjust our understanding based on the simpler concepts. Equipped with these guidelines ranging from atom to phase diagram, the current development stage in lead-free piezoceramics is then critically assessed.

2,510 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the impact factors on the hysteresis loops are discussed based on recent developments in ferroelectric and related materials, including the effect of materials (grain size and grain boundary, phase and phase boundary, doping, anisotropy, thickness), aging, and measurement conditions (applied field amplitude, fatigue, frequency, temperature, stress), which can affect the hysteretic behaviors of the ferroelectrics.
Abstract: Due to the nature of domains, ferroics, including ferromagnetic, ferroelectric, and ferroelastic materials, exhibit hysteresis phenomena with respect to external driving fields (magnetic field, electric field, or stress). In principle, every ferroic material has its own hysteresis loop, like a fingerprint, which contains information related to its properties and structures. For ferroelectrics, many characteristic parameters, such as coercive field, spontaneous, and remnant polarizations can be directly extracted from the hysteresis loops. Furthermore, many impact factors, including the effect of materials (grain size and grain boundary, phase and phase boundary, doping, anisotropy, thickness), aging (with and without poling), and measurement conditions (applied field amplitude, fatigue, frequency, temperature, stress), can affect the hysteretic behaviors of the ferroelectrics. In this feature article, we will first give the background of the ferroic materials and multiferroics, with an emphasis on ferroelectrics. Then it is followed by an introduction of the characterizing techniques for the loops, including the polarization–electric field loops and strain–electric field curves. A caution is made to avoid misinterpretation of the loops due to the existence of conductivity. Based on their morphologic features, the hysteresis loops are categorized to four groups and the corresponding material usages are introduced. The impact factors on the hysteresis loops are discussed based on recent developments in ferroelectric and related materials. It is suggested that decoding the fingerprint of loops in ferroelectrics is feasible and the comprehension of the material properties and structures through the hysteresis loops is established.

869 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A brief review on the current progress in stimuli-responsive shape memory materials can be found in this article, where the focus is on twofold, namely newly observed ones, and novel applications with great potential at present and in near future.

864 citations

References
More filters
Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The perovskite relaxor ferroelectric lead magnesium niobate (PbMg 1 3 Nb 2 3 O 3 ) is an important material because of its high dielectric constant and correspondingly large electrostrictive strains as mentioned in this paper.

1,465 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe a scenario where they are in the last stages of typing their thesis, the year is 1980, and it's a hot, hazy summer afternoon, a thunderstorm brews on the horizon.
Abstract: Imagine you are in the last stages of typing your thesis, the year is 1980, and it's a hot, hazy summer afternoon, a thunderstorm brews on the horizon. Tense and tired, you have forgotten to save the document on your hard disk. Suddenly, lightning strikes! Your computer shuts down. Your final chapter is lost.

1,179 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, transparent ferroelectric ceramic materials suitable for a variety of electrooptic applications were found in the quaternary (Pb,La,Zr,Ti)O3 system.
Abstract: Transparent ferroelectric ceramic materials suitable for a variety of electrooptic applications were found in the quaternary (Pb,La)(Zr,Ti)O3 system. These PLZT materials are prepared from mixed oxides and hot-pressed typically at 1100°C for 16 h at 2000 psi. Modifying the lead zirconate-titanate system with lanthana linearly reduces the Curie point with increasing lanthana. Transmission measurements in the visible and infrared show that these materials exhibit a nearly constant response from the absorption edge of 0.37 μ to ∼6 μm. The highest transmission values, essentially 100% (neglecting reflection losses of ∼18%) for thin polished plates, were noted for compositions containing 8 at.% La or more. Specific compositions within the system display electrooptic memory or conventional linear or quadratic electrooptic effects; on the basis of the magnitude of the electrooptic effects, they compare quite favorably with single crystals.

1,002 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the doublet theory of dielectric action is applied to Rochelle salt and the moment per unit volume in the natural state is of the order of 50 e.s.
Abstract: Electric Hysteresis in Rochelle Salt.---On the doublet theory of dielectric action, the dielectric displacement $D$, electric intensity $E$, and the polarization $P$ are analogous to $B$, $H$, and $I$ in the case of magnetism. Rochelle salt shows an electric hysteresis in $P$ analogous to the magnetic hysteresis in the case of iron. The loops obtained are displaced from the origin by an amount which gives a measure of the permanent polarization in the natural state. The moment per unit volume in the natural state is of the order of 50 e.s.u./${\mathrm{cm}.}^{2}$ under ordinary conditions, this being about 13.3 \ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{} ${10}^{\ensuremath{-}21}$ e.s.u./${\mathrm{cm}.}^{2}$ per molecule.Piezo-electric Response of Rochelle Salt in an Electric Field.---Mechanical force and electric field are to a certain extent equivalent in producing a change in the piezo-electric moment. Measurements of the piezo-electric response in various applied fields therefore give curves of the same nature as the curves of $\frac{\mathrm{dD}}{\mathrm{dE}}$ against $E$. Accordingly they show maxima displaced from the origin by the effect of permanent polarization.

802 citations