Flowering time regulation: photoperiod- and temperature-sensing in leaves.
TL;DR: How circadian clock-regulated components of the Arabidopsis photoperiodic flowering pathway interactively regulate the expression of FT, the main component of florigen, in leaves is described.
About: This article is published in Trends in Plant Science.The article was published on 2013-10-01 and is currently open access. It has received 481 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Florigen & Arabidopsis.
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TL;DR: The current understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which photoperiodic information is perceived in order to trigger FT expression in Arabidopsis as well as in the primary cereals wheat, barley, and rice are summarized.
Abstract: Many plants use information about changing day length (photoperiod) to align their flowering time with seasonal changes to increase reproductive success. A mechanism for photoperiodic time measurement is present in leaves, and the day-length-specific induction of the FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) gene, which encodes florigen, is a major final output of the pathway. Here, we summarize the current understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which photoperiodic information is perceived in order to trigger FT expression in Arabidopsis as well as in the primary cereals wheat, barley, and rice. In these plants, the differences in photoperiod are measured by interactions between circadian-clock-regulated components, such as CONSTANS (CO), and light signaling. The interactions happen under certain day-length conditions, as previously predicted by the external coincidence model. In these plants, the coincidence mechanisms are governed by multilayered regulation with numerous conserved as well as unique regulatory compon...
458 citations
TL;DR: An evolutive and interactive database of flowering time genes, named FLOR-ID (Flowering-Interactive Database), which is freely accessible at http://www.flor-id.org.
Abstract: Flowering is a hot topic in Plant Biology and important progress has been made in Arabidopsis thaliana toward unraveling the genetic networks involved. The increasing complexity and the explosion of literature however require development of new tools for information management and update. We therefore created an evolutive and interactive database of flowering time genes, named FLOR-ID (Flowering-Interactive Database), which is freely accessible at http://www.flor-id.org. The hand-curated database contains information on 306 genes and links to 1595 publications gathering the work of >4500 authors. Gene/protein functions and interactions within the flowering pathways were inferred from the analysis of related publications, included in the database and translated into interactive manually drawn snapshots.
266 citations
TL;DR: A review of how flowering time is influenced by nutrients, ambient temperature, drought, salinity, exogenously applied hormones and chemicals, and pathogenic microbes provides insight into how crops might be managed to increase productivity under various environmental challenges.
Abstract: The timing of flowering is determined by endogenous genetic components as well as various environmental factors, such as day length, temperature, and stress. The genetic elements and molecular mechanisms that rule this process have been examined in the long-day-flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana and short-day-flowering rice (Oryza sativa). However, reviews of research on the role of those factors are limited. Here, we focused on how flowering time is influenced by nutrients, ambient temperature, drought, salinity, exogenously applied hormones and chemicals, and pathogenic microbes. In response to such stresses or stimuli, plants either begin flowering to produce seeds for the next generation or else delay flowering by slowing their metabolism. These responses vary depending upon the dose of the stimulus, the plant developmental stage, or even the cultivar that is used. Our review provides insight into how crops might be managed to increase productivity under various environmental challenges.
248 citations
Cites background from "Flowering time regulation: photoper..."
...Studies of the molecular mechanisms involved in controlling flowering time have been extensively reviewed for Arabidopsis thaliana, a model long-day (LD) plant (Amasino, 2010; Song et al., 2013b) and for the short-day (SD) model plant rice (Oryza sativa) (Jeong et al., 2015; Lee and An, 2015b)....
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...Mutants in bHLH TF genes that repress JA signaling exhibit late flowering whereas the JA receptor mutant coi1 blooms early (Song et al., 2013a)....
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TL;DR: Early flowering provides a promising strategy for the production of advanced drought-adapted wheat cultivars and can be high both in well-watered and drought-affected field trials, where an efficient strategy of DE was associated with quick growth, yield potential and water use efficiency.
Abstract: Drought escape is a classical adaptive mechanism which involves rapid plant development to enable the completion of the full life-cycle prior to a coming drought event. This strategy is widely used in populations of native plants, and is also applicable to cereal crops such as wheat. Early flowering time and a shorter vegetative phase can be very important for wheat production in conditions of terminal drought since this can minimise exposure to dehydration during the sensitive flowering and post-anthesis grain filling periods. A gradual shift towards early flowering has been observed over the last century of wheat breeding in countries with a Mediterranean-type climate and frequent terminal drought. This trend is predicted to continue for wheat production in the coming years in response to global climate warming. The advantage of early flowering wheat is apparent under conditions of impending terminal drought. Under favourable conditions, a short vegetative phase can result in reduced plant biomass which will limit nutrients and assimilates for high grain yield in the absence of stress. However, where the early flowering trait exists in combination with other drought tolerance mechanisms and high yield potential have been reported, early flowering provides a promising strategy for the production of advanced drought-adapted wheat cultivars.
248 citations
Cites background from "Flowering time regulation: photoper..."
...Such plants were also named ‘short-season’ or ‘short-cycle’ genotypes, and can effectively escape drought (Turner, 1986; Loss and Siddique, 1994; Acevedo et al., 1999; Chaves et al., 2003; Song et al., 2013)....
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TL;DR: The circadian clock and light signaling regulate CONSTANS function through intricate mechanisms that reside in phloem companion cells of leaves for controlling photoperiodic flowering in Arabidopsis.
Abstract: The circadian clock and light signaling regulate CONSTANS function through intricate mechanisms that reside in phloem companion cells of leaves for controlling photoperiodic flowering in Arabidopsis.
220 citations
Cites background from "Flowering time regulation: photoper..."
...These AP2 type proteins are age-dependent regulators of FT, as they are posttranscriptionally regulated by miR172 (Aukerman and Sakai, 2003; Chen, 2004; Song et al., 2013)....
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...For instance, in addition to age-dependent regulation (Aukerman and Sakai, 2003; Song et al., 2013), low temperature in the morning can also strengthen the function of TOEs to inhibit flowering by down-regulating miRNA172s (Lee et al., 2010)....
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...(Andrés and Coupland, 2012; Song et al., 2013; Pajoro et al., 2014; Shim and Imaizumi, 2015)....
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References
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TL;DR: It is concluded that FT protein acts as a long-distance signal that induces Arabidopsis flowering, and evidence that FT does not activate an intermediate messenger in leaves is provided.
Abstract: In plants, seasonal changes in day length are perceived in leaves, which initiate long-distance signaling that induces flowering at the shoot apex. The identity of the long-distance signal has yet to be determined. In Arabidopsis, activation of FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) transcription in leaf vascular tissue (phloem) induces flowering. We found that FT messenger RNA is required only transiently in the leaf. In addition, FT fusion proteins expressed specifically in phloem cells move to the apex and move long distances between grafted plants. Finally, we provide evidence that FT does not activate an intermediate messenger in leaves. We conclude that FT protein acts as a long-distance signal that induces Arabidopsis flowering.
1,846 citations
TL;DR: Current understanding of the GA biosynthesis and deactivation pathways in plants and fungi is summarized, and how GA concentrations in plant tissues are regulated during development and in response to environmental stimuli is discussed.
Abstract: Bioactive gibberellins (GAs) are diterpene plant hormones that are biosynthesized through complex pathways and control diverse aspects of growth and development. Biochemical, genetic, and genomic approaches have led to the identification of the majority of the genes that encode GA biosynthesis and deactivation enzymes. Recent studies have highlighted the occurrence of previously unrecognized deactivation mechanisms. It is now clear that both GA biosynthesis and deactivation pathways are tightly regulated by developmental, hormonal, and environmental signals, consistent with the role of GAs as key growth regulators. In some cases, the molecular mechanisms for fine-tuning the hormone levels are beginning to be uncovered. In this review, I summarize our current understanding of the GA biosynthesis and deactivation pathways in plants and fungi, and discuss how GA concentrations in plant tissues are regulated during development and in response to environmental stimuli.
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TL;DR: This work focuses on recent progress in transcriptional, post-transcriptional and post- translational regulation of gene expression that is critical for cold acclimation in temperate plants.
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TL;DR: The transition from the juvenile to the adult phase of shoot development in plants is accompanied by changes in vegetative morphology and an increase in reproductive potential, and the regulatory mechanism is described, which is mediated by sequentially operating miRNAs.
1,344 citations
TL;DR: The average first flowering date of 385 British plant species has advanced by 4.5 days during the past decade compared with the previous four decades, revealing the strongest biological signal yet of climatic change.
Abstract: The average first flowering date of 385 British plant species has advanced by 4.5 days during the past decade compared with the previous four decades: 16% of species flowered significantly earlier in the 1990s than previously, with an average advancement of 15 days in a decade. Ten species (3%) flowered significantly later in the 1990s than previously. These data reveal the strongest biological signal yet of climatic change. Flowering is especially sensitive to the temperature in the previous month, and spring-flowering species are most responsive. However, large interspecific differences in this response will affect both the structure of plant communities and gene flow between species as climate warms. Annuals are more likely to flower early than congeneric perennials, and insect-pollinated species more than wind-pollinated ones.
1,310 citations