Foetus into Man: Physical Growth from Conception to Maturity
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TL;DR: It is concluded that early experience, biological factors, educational policy, and cultural context affect the number of women and men who pursue advanced study in science and math and that these effects add and interact in complex ways.
Abstract: SUMMARY—Amid ongoing public speculation about the reasons for sex differences in careers in science and mathematics, we present a consensus statement that is based on the best available scientific evidence. Sex differences in science and math achievement and ability are smaller for the mid-range of the abilities distribution than they are for those with the highest levels of achievement and ability. Males are more variable on most measures of quantitative and visuospatial ability, which necessarily results in more males at both high- and low-ability extremes; the reasons why males are often more variable remain elusive. Successful careers in math and science require many types of cognitive abilities. Females tend to excel in verbal abilities, with large differences between females andmalesfound whenassessmentsincludewriting samples. High-level achievement in science and math requires the ability to communicate effectively and comprehend abstract ideas, so the female advantage in writing should be helpful in all academic domains. Males outperform females on most measures of visuospatial abilities, which have been implicated as contributing to sex differences on standardized examsin mathematics and science. An evolutionary account of sex differences in mathematics and science supports the conclusion that, although sex differences in math and science performance have not directly evolved, they could be indirectly related to differences in interests and specific brain and cognitive systems. We review the brain basis for sex differences in science and mathematics, describe consistent effects, and identify numerous possible correlates. Experience alters brain structures and functioning, so causal statements about brain differences and success in math and science are circular. A wide range of sociocultural forces contribute to sex differences in mathematics and science achievement and ability—including the effects of family,neighborhood,peer,andschoolinfluences;training and experience; and cultural practices. We conclude that early experience, biological factors, educational policy, and cultural context affect the number of women and men who pursue advanced study in science and math and that these effects add and interact in complex ways. There are no single or simple answers to the complex questions about sex differences in science and mathematics.
979 citations
Cites background or result from "Foetus into Man: Physical Growth fr..."
...Sexual Selection Human sex differences in physical size, upper-bodymusculature, rate and pattern of physical development, and other traits are consistent with the view that sexual selection has contributed to some currently observed sex differences (Tanner, 1990)....
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...Human sex differences in physical size, upper-bodymusculature, rate and pattern of physical development, and other traits are consistent with the view that sexual selection has contributed to some currently observed sex differences (Tanner, 1990)....
[...]
TL;DR: Preliminary findings lend support to an association between low 2D:4D and high levels of FT relative to FE, and high 2D-4D with low FTrelative to FE.
861 citations
Cites background from "Foetus into Man: Physical Growth fr..."
...Traits that differ between the sexes show a tendency for the male form of the trait to be most strongly expressed on the right side of the body [21]....
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TL;DR: Physiologists have in general paid more attention than clinicians to gender differences in airway behaviour, even though gender differences are an important determinant of the clinical manifestations of airway disease.
Abstract: Gender differences in airway behaviour and in the clinical manifestations of airway disease occur throughout the human life span and are related to biological as well as sociocultural factors.1-11 Though they have not escaped recognition, they have received less attention than gender differences in the rates of, for instance, cardiovascular disease, both in terms of research and their implications for clinical practice.4 5 10-12Physiologists have in general paid more attention than clinicians to gender differences in airway behaviour, even though gender differences are an important determinant of the clinical manifestations of airway disease. Similarly, in population based (epidemiological) studies of airway disease, gender is invariably considered a standardising variable rather than a determinant worthy of investigation in its own right.4 However, there have been some notable historical exceptions.
In 1846 John Hutchison,1 a London surgeon, presented a report to the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society entitled On the capacity of the lungs and the respiratory functions with a view of establishing a precise and easy method of detecting disease by the spirometer . He had developed the spirometer specifically for this research and his study is one of the first, if not the first, population based (epidemiological) study in respiratory health. One of the outcome measurements he used in his research was the “vital capacity” (VC), a term he coined to describe “the greatest voluntary expiration following the deepest inspiration”. His study population comprised over 2000 men drawn from various professions and occupations (including soldiers, sailors, guardsmen, policemen, gentlemen, giants, and dwarfs) and 26 young girls, and he identified height, weight, and age as the important determinants of VC. His epitome (as he called his summary) does not include a comment on whether there were gender differences, probably wisely given the limited number of women …
663 citations
TL;DR: The possibility that the evolution of mating preferences and secondary sex traits can be based on heritable differences in viability is examined with a three‐locus model, based on a monogamous mating system that precludes such a Fisherian mating advantage being required.
Abstract: The possibility that the evolution of mating preferences and secondary sex traits can be based on heritable differences in viability is examined with a three-locus model. Earlier genetic models suggested that viability-based processes alone cannot explain the evolution of mate choice and sex ornaments that reduce survival; a Fisherian mating advantage seemed necessary. The present model is based on a monogamous mating system that precludes such a mating advantage. A key assumption is that ornament development depends on the phenotypic condition and overall genotype of the possessor; there is evidence that secondary sex traits often mirror nutritional status and health, sometimes through hormonal mediation. Ornament and preference can then hitchhike slowly to high frequency with alleles that confer a slight survival advantage, provided that such alleles become available often enough. The evolution of mating preferences and secondary sex traits that reflect overall genotypic constitution therefore can be based solely on viability differences, no Fisherian mating advantage being required. In practice, these and several other mechanisms of sexual selection may occur together.
607 citations
TL;DR: An update on the present perception of growth plate function and the regulation of chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation by systemic and local regulators of which most are now related to human growth disorders is presented.
Abstract: The growth plate is the final target organ for longitudinal growth and results from chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation. During the first year of life, longitudinal growth rates are high, followed by a decade of modest longitudinal growth. The age at onset of puberty and the growth rate during the pubertal growth spurt (which occurs under the influence of estrogens and GH) contribute to sex difference in final height between boys and girls. At the end of puberty, growth plates fuse, thereby ceasing longitudinal growth. It has been recognized that receptors for many hormones such as estrogen, GH, and glucocorticoids are present in or on growth plate chondrocytes, suggesting that these hormones may influence processes in the growth plate directly. Moreover, many growth factors, i.e., IGF-I, Indian hedgehog, PTHrP, fibroblast growth factors, bone morphogenetic proteins, and vascular endothelial growth factor, are now considered as crucial regulators of chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation. In this review, we present an update on the present perception of growth plate function and the regulation of chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation by systemic and local regulators of which most are now related to human growth disorders.
535 citations
Cites background from "Foetus into Man: Physical Growth fr..."
...growth rate accordingly, and this is termed “sizo-stat” (50)....
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References
More filters
TL;DR: It is concluded that early experience, biological factors, educational policy, and cultural context affect the number of women and men who pursue advanced study in science and math and that these effects add and interact in complex ways.
Abstract: SUMMARY—Amid ongoing public speculation about the reasons for sex differences in careers in science and mathematics, we present a consensus statement that is based on the best available scientific evidence. Sex differences in science and math achievement and ability are smaller for the mid-range of the abilities distribution than they are for those with the highest levels of achievement and ability. Males are more variable on most measures of quantitative and visuospatial ability, which necessarily results in more males at both high- and low-ability extremes; the reasons why males are often more variable remain elusive. Successful careers in math and science require many types of cognitive abilities. Females tend to excel in verbal abilities, with large differences between females andmalesfound whenassessmentsincludewriting samples. High-level achievement in science and math requires the ability to communicate effectively and comprehend abstract ideas, so the female advantage in writing should be helpful in all academic domains. Males outperform females on most measures of visuospatial abilities, which have been implicated as contributing to sex differences on standardized examsin mathematics and science. An evolutionary account of sex differences in mathematics and science supports the conclusion that, although sex differences in math and science performance have not directly evolved, they could be indirectly related to differences in interests and specific brain and cognitive systems. We review the brain basis for sex differences in science and mathematics, describe consistent effects, and identify numerous possible correlates. Experience alters brain structures and functioning, so causal statements about brain differences and success in math and science are circular. A wide range of sociocultural forces contribute to sex differences in mathematics and science achievement and ability—including the effects of family,neighborhood,peer,andschoolinfluences;training and experience; and cultural practices. We conclude that early experience, biological factors, educational policy, and cultural context affect the number of women and men who pursue advanced study in science and math and that these effects add and interact in complex ways. There are no single or simple answers to the complex questions about sex differences in science and mathematics.
979 citations
TL;DR: Preliminary findings lend support to an association between low 2D:4D and high levels of FT relative to FE, and high 2D-4D with low FTrelative to FE.
861 citations
TL;DR: Physiologists have in general paid more attention than clinicians to gender differences in airway behaviour, even though gender differences are an important determinant of the clinical manifestations of airway disease.
Abstract: Gender differences in airway behaviour and in the clinical manifestations of airway disease occur throughout the human life span and are related to biological as well as sociocultural factors.1-11 Though they have not escaped recognition, they have received less attention than gender differences in the rates of, for instance, cardiovascular disease, both in terms of research and their implications for clinical practice.4 5 10-12Physiologists have in general paid more attention than clinicians to gender differences in airway behaviour, even though gender differences are an important determinant of the clinical manifestations of airway disease. Similarly, in population based (epidemiological) studies of airway disease, gender is invariably considered a standardising variable rather than a determinant worthy of investigation in its own right.4 However, there have been some notable historical exceptions.
In 1846 John Hutchison,1 a London surgeon, presented a report to the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society entitled On the capacity of the lungs and the respiratory functions with a view of establishing a precise and easy method of detecting disease by the spirometer . He had developed the spirometer specifically for this research and his study is one of the first, if not the first, population based (epidemiological) study in respiratory health. One of the outcome measurements he used in his research was the “vital capacity” (VC), a term he coined to describe “the greatest voluntary expiration following the deepest inspiration”. His study population comprised over 2000 men drawn from various professions and occupations (including soldiers, sailors, guardsmen, policemen, gentlemen, giants, and dwarfs) and 26 young girls, and he identified height, weight, and age as the important determinants of VC. His epitome (as he called his summary) does not include a comment on whether there were gender differences, probably wisely given the limited number of women …
663 citations
TL;DR: An update on the present perception of growth plate function and the regulation of chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation by systemic and local regulators of which most are now related to human growth disorders is presented.
Abstract: The growth plate is the final target organ for longitudinal growth and results from chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation. During the first year of life, longitudinal growth rates are high, followed by a decade of modest longitudinal growth. The age at onset of puberty and the growth rate during the pubertal growth spurt (which occurs under the influence of estrogens and GH) contribute to sex difference in final height between boys and girls. At the end of puberty, growth plates fuse, thereby ceasing longitudinal growth. It has been recognized that receptors for many hormones such as estrogen, GH, and glucocorticoids are present in or on growth plate chondrocytes, suggesting that these hormones may influence processes in the growth plate directly. Moreover, many growth factors, i.e., IGF-I, Indian hedgehog, PTHrP, fibroblast growth factors, bone morphogenetic proteins, and vascular endothelial growth factor, are now considered as crucial regulators of chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation. In this review, we present an update on the present perception of growth plate function and the regulation of chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation by systemic and local regulators of which most are now related to human growth disorders.
535 citations
TL;DR: A focus on intra-uterine life is a new point of departure for cardiovascular research and shows that undernutrition in utero permanently changes the body’s structure and function in ways which ‘programme’ the appearance of disease in later life.
Abstract: Recent research has shown that babies who are small at birth and during infancy will be at increased risk of developing coronary heart disease and the related disorders, stroke, diabetes and hypertension during adult life [1,2]. That a person’s destiny and lifespan may be determined before birth is well known. Genetically determined diseases such as Huntington’s chorea illustrate how a long period of normal development and adult life can be prematurely brought to an end by the action of inherited defects. We are now seeing that undernutrition in utero permanently changes the body’s structure and function in ways which ‘programme’ the appearance of disease in later life. The main focus for research into the causes of coronary heart disease is the lifestyle of adults. Inappropriate behaviours, such as cigarette smoking and becoming obese, have been shown to hasten destructive processes in the body. Differences in lifestyle, however, fail to explain much about the geography of the disease, its time trends, or why one person gets the disease and another does not. In the search for a new model for the disease an important clue, suggesting that coronary heart disease might originate in utero, came from studies of death rates among newborn babies in the early years of the century [3,4]. It was found that, across England and Wales, areas which have high death rates from coronary heart disease had high death rates among newborn babies in the early years of the century. At that time the usual cause of death among newborn babies was small size [5]. The suggestion that events in childhood influence the pathogenesis of coronary heart disease is not new [6]. A focus on intra-uterine life, however, is a new point of departure for cardiovascular research.
499 citations