From barnyard to food table: the omnipresence of hepatitis E virus and risk for zoonotic infection and food safety.
TL;DR: The identified and characterization of a number of animal strains of HEV from pigs, chickens, rabbits, rats, mongoose, deer, and possibly cattle and sheep have significantly broadened the host range and diversity of Hepeviridae, and the demonstrated ability of cross-species infection by some animal strain raises public health concerns for zoonotic HEV infection.
About: This article is published in Virus Research.The article was published on 2011-10-01 and is currently open access. It has received 271 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Hepatitis E & Zoonotic Infection.
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TL;DR: Using a validated sensitive assay, it is found hepatitis E virus (HEV) IgG in 52.5% of voluntary blood donors in southwestern France, which suggests HEV is highly endemic to this region.
Abstract: Using a validated sensitive assay, we found hepatitis E virus (HEV) IgG in 52.5% of voluntary blood donors in southwestern France. This finding suggests HEV is highly endemic to this region. The high HEV prevalence may reflect local dietary practices, such as eating uncooked pork and game products.
339 citations
Cites background from "From barnyard to food table: the om..."
...Another suspected zoonotic source of HEV genotype 3 infection is the domestic pig (12)....
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TL;DR: An unbiased survey of viruses in the feces of intensely farmed animals revealed frequent coinfections with a highly diverse set of viruses providing favorable conditions for viral recombination.
Abstract: Swine are an important source of proteins worldwide but are subject to frequent viral outbreaks and numerous infections capable of infecting humans. Modern farming conditions may also increase viral transmission and potential zoonotic spread. We describe here the metagenomics-derived virome in the feces of 24 healthy and 12 diarrheic piglets on a high-density farm. An average of 4.2 different mammalian viruses were shed by healthy piglets, reflecting a high level of asymptomatic infections. Diarrheic pigs shed an average of 5.4 different mammalian viruses. Ninety-nine percent of the viral sequences were related to the RNA virus families Picornaviridae, Astroviridae, Coronaviridae, and Caliciviridae, while 1% were related to the small DNA virus families Circoviridae, and Parvoviridae. Porcine RNA viruses identified, in order of decreasing number of sequence reads, consisted of kobuviruses, astroviruses, enteroviruses, sapoviruses, sapeloviruses, coronaviruses, bocaviruses, and teschoviruses. The near-full genomes of multiple novel species of porcine astroviruses and bocaviruses were generated and phylogenetically analyzed. Multiple small circular DNA genomes encoding replicase proteins plus two highly divergent members of the Picornavirales order were also characterized. The possible origin of these viral genomes from pig-infecting protozoans and nematodes, based on closest sequence similarities, is discussed. In summary, an unbiased survey of viruses in the feces of intensely farmed animals revealed frequent coinfections with a highly diverse set of viruses providing favorable conditions for viral recombination. Viral surveys of animals can readily document the circulation of known and new viruses, facilitating the detection of emerging viruses and prospective evaluation of their pathogenic and zoonotic potentials.
299 citations
Cites background from "From barnyard to food table: the om..."
...Swine are the natural reservoir of a large variety of viruses capable of causing human diseases, including hepatitis E virus (74), Nipah virus (75), and pandemic H1N1 influenza virus (43)....
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TL;DR: This review summarizes the ecology of zoonoses associated with urban rats with a view to identifying similarities, critical differences, and avenues for further study.
Abstract: Urban Norway and black rats (Rattus norvegicus and Rattus rattus) are the source of a number of pathogens responsible for significant human morbidity and mortality in cities around the world. These pathogens include zoonotic bacteria (Leptospira interrogans, Yersina pestis, Rickettsia typhi, Bartonella spp., Streptobacillus moniliformis), viruses (Seoul hantavirus), and parasites (Angiostrongylus cantonensis). A more complete understanding of the ecology of these pathogens in people and rats is critical for determining the public health risks associated with urban rats and for developing strategies to monitor and mitigate those risks. Although the ecology of rat-associated zoonoses is complex, due to the multiple ways in which rats, people, pathogens, vectors, and the environment may interact, common determinants of human disease can still be identified. This review summarizes the ecology of zoonoses associated with urban rats with a view to identifying similarities, critical differences, and ave...
255 citations
Cites background from "From barnyard to food table: the om..."
...Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a recently recognized viral zoonosis (Meng 2011) and a common cause of acute hepatitis in people (Hyams 2002)....
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...Although pigs are thought to be the primary reservoir (Meng 2011), studies have shown that rats may also be HEV carriers (Kabrane-Lazizi et al....
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...Although pigs are thought to be the primary reservoir (Meng 2011), studies have shown that rats may also be HEV carriers (Kabrane-Lazizi et al. 1999, Favorov et al. 2000, Meng 2011)....
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...New research, however, has shown that HEV in rats is only partially related to that found in humans and pigs (Meng 2011, Purcell et al. 2011)....
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TL;DR: A qualitative risk assessment identified Salmonella, Yersinia enterocolitica, Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spp.
Abstract: A qualitative risk assessment identified Salmonella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spp. as the most relevant biological hazards in the context of meat inspection of swine. A comprehensive pork carcass safety assurance is the only way to ensure their effective control. This requires setting targets to be achieved in/on chilled carcasses, which also informs what has to be achieved earlier in the food chain. Improved Food Chain Information (FCI) enables risk-differentiation of pig batches (hazard-related) and abattoirs (process hygiene-related). Risk reduction measures at abattoir level are focused on prevention of microbial contamination through technology- and process hygiene-based measures (GMP/GHP- and HACCP-based), including omitting palpation/incision during post-mortem inspection in routine slaughter, as well as hazard reduction/inactivation meat treatments if necessary. At farm level, risk reduction measures are based on herd health programmes, closed breeding pyramids and GHP/GFP. Chemical substances listed in Council Directive 96/23/EC were ranked into four categories. Dioxins, dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls and chloramphenicol were ranked as being of high potential concern. However, chemical substances in pork are unlikely to pose an immediate or short term health risk for consumers. Opportunities for risk-based inspection strategies by means of differentiated sampling plans taking into account FCI were identified. Regular update of sampling programmes and inclusion of inspection criteria for the identification of illicit use of substances were also recommended. Meat inspection is a key component of the overall surveillance system for pig health and welfare but information is currently under-utilised. The changes proposed to the pig meat inspection system will lead to some reduction in the detection probability of diseases and welfare conditions. The difference is likely to be minimal for diseases/conditions that affect several organs. To mitigate the reduced detection probability, palpation and/or incision should be conducted as a follow-up to visual inspection whenever abnormalities are seen
241 citations
TL;DR: The current understanding ofHEV transmission routes with emphasis on food and environmental sources and the prevalence of HEV in animal species with zoonotic potential in humans is reviewed, as HEV is an extremely under studied but important human pathogen.
Abstract: Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is responsible for epidemics and endemics of acute hepatitis in humans, mainly through waterborne, foodborne, and zoonotic transmission routes. HEV is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus classified in the family Hepeviridae and encompasses four known Genotypes (1-4), at least two new putative genotypes of mammalian HEV, and one floating genus of avian HEV. Genotypes 1 and 2 HEVs only affect humans, while Genotypes 3 and 4 are zoonotic and responsible for sporadic and autochthonous infections in both humans and several other animal species worldwide. HEV has an ever-expanding host range and has been identified in numerous animal species. Swine serve as a reservoir species for HEV transmission to humans; however, it is likely that other animal species may also act as reservoirs. HEV poses an important public health concern with cases of the disease definitively linked to handling of infected pigs, consumption of raw and undercooked animal meats, and animal manure contamination of drinking or irrigation water. Infectious HEV has been identified in numerous sources of concern including animal feces, sewage water, inadequately-treated water, contaminated shellfish and produce, as well as animal meats. Many aspects of HEV pathogenesis, replication, and immunological responses remain unknown, as HEV is an extremely understudied but important human pathogen. This article reviews the current understanding of HEV transmission routes with emphasis on food and environmental sources and the prevalence of HEV in animal species with zoonotic potential in humans.
212 citations
Cites background from "From barnyard to food table: the om..."
...The serological data from ruminants is based upon cross-reaction of the ruminant serum samples with known HEV proteins such as ORF2 [7,165,171,172]....
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...the ruminant serum samples with known HEV proteins such as ORF2 [7,165,171,172]....
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...In developing countries in Asia and Africa, poor sanitation conditions lead to outbreaks of acute hepatitis E; however, sporadic and autochthonous cases of hepatitis E also occur throughout many industrialized countries in Europe, Asia, and North America [6,7]....
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...The Sika and Yezo deer in Japan carried a 3% and 35% anti-HEV seroprevalence respectively, with a positive association with HEV infection in humans and nearly identical nucleotide sequence identity with HEV strains from local wild boars [7,14,150,168]....
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...In addition to humans, HEV has been identified in numerous other animal species including wild and domestic swine, deer, chicken, mongoose, rat, ferret, fish, and rabbits with an ever-expanding host range [1,7,10]....
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TL;DR: The discovery of swine HEV not only has implications for HEV vaccine development, diagnosis, and biology, but also raises a potential public health concern for zoonosis or xenozoonosis following xenotransplantation with pig organs.
Abstract: A novel virus, designated swine hepatitis E virus (swine HEV), was identified in pigs. Swine HEV crossreacts with antibody to the human HEV capsid antigen. Swine HEV is a ubiquitous agent and the majority of swine ≥3 months of age in herds from the midwestern United States were seropositive. Young pigs naturally infected by swine HEV were clinically normal but had microscopic evidence of hepatitis, and developed viremia prior to seroconversion. The entire ORFs 2 and 3 were amplified by reverse transcription–PCR from sera of naturally infected pigs. The putative capsid gene (ORF2) of swine HEV shared about 79–80% sequence identity at the nucleotide level and 90–92% identity at the amino acid level with human HEV strains. The small ORF3 of swine HEV had 83–85% nucleotide sequence identity and 77–82% amino acid identity with human HEV strains. Phylogenetic analyses showed that swine HEV is closely related to, but distinct from, human HEV strains. The discovery of swine HEV not only has implications for HEV vaccine development, diagnosis, and biology, but also raises a potential public health concern for zoonosis or xenozoonosis following xenotransplantation with pig organs.
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TL;DR: Findings provide direct evidence for HEV infection to be a zoonosis among people who had eaten uncooked deer meat 6-7 weeks before and patients' family members who ate none or very little of the deer meat remained uninfected.
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