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Book Chapter•DOI•

Global Distribution of Alveolar and Cystic Echinococcosis.

Peter Deplazes1, Laura Rinaldi2, C. A. Alvarez Rojas3, Paul R. Torgerson1, Majid Fasihi Harandi4, Thomas Romig5, Daniela Antolová, Janna M. Schurer6, S Lahmar7, Giuseppe Cringoli2, Japhet Magambo8, R.C.A. Thompson9, Emily J. Jenkins10 •
University of Zurich1, University of Naples Federico II2, University of Melbourne3, Kerman Medical University4, University of Hohenheim5, University of Washington6, SIDI7, Meru University of Science and Technology8, Murdoch University9, University of Saskatchewan10
01 Jan 2017-Advances in Parasitology (Academic Press)-Vol. 95, Iss: 6, pp 315-493
TL;DR: This chapter presents the global distribution of Echinococcus species and human AE and CE in maps and summarizes the global data on host assemblages, transmission, prevalence in animal definitive hosts, incidence in people and molecular epidemiology.
Abstract: Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) and cystic echinococcosis (CE) are severe helminthic zoonoses. Echinococcus multilocularis (causative agent of AE) is widely distributed in the northern hemisphere where it is typically maintained in a wild animal cycle including canids as definitive hosts and rodents as intermediate hosts. The species Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus ortleppi, Echinococcus canadensis and Echinococcus intermedius are the causative agents of CE with a worldwide distribution and a highly variable human disease burden in the different endemic areas depending upon human behavioural risk factors, the diversity and ecology of animal host assemblages and the genetic diversity within Echinococcus species which differ in their zoonotic potential and pathogenicity. Both AE and CE are regarded as neglected zoonoses, with a higher overall burden of disease for CE due to its global distribution and high regional prevalence, but a higher pathogenicity and case fatality rate for AE, especially in Asia. Over the past two decades, numerous studies have addressed the epidemiology and distribution of these Echinococcus species worldwide, resulting in better-defined boundaries of the endemic areas. This chapter presents the global distribution of Echinococcus species and human AE and CE in maps and summarizes the global data on host assemblages, transmission, prevalence in animal definitive hosts, incidence in people and molecular epidemiology.

Summary (3 min read)

Jump to: [3.1.3 Canada] – [3.1.4 Mexico] – [3.3.1 Host assemblages, transmission and molecular epidemiology] – [3.3.3 Infection in humans] – [3.4.1 Introduction] – [3.4.1.1.1 Host assemblages, transmission and molecular] – [3.5.6 South East Asia: Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic] – [3.6.1 Host assemblages, transmission and molecular epidemiology] – [3.6.2 Infections in animals] – [3.6.3 Cystic echinococcosis in humans] and [3.7.2.5.1 Host assemblages, transmission and molecular]

3.1.3 Canada

  • Echinococcus canadensis G10 is also present in domestic dogs in Saskatchewan (Himsworth et al., 2010).
  • Wolves are the primary definitive host for E. canadensis in Canada.
  • Gender (females > males), indigenous ethnicity and residence north of 55 N are considered contemporary risk factors for autochthonous CE (Gilbert et al., 2010; Jenkins et al., 2013; Somily et al., 2005).
  • Healthcare costs associated with CE have been calculated in Canada and are based on direct costs associated with medical treatment (e.g., medical imaging, surgery, chemotherapy, over-the-counter and prescription medications and hospitalization).

3.1.4 Mexico

  • Parasite surveillance in the Federal District and the states of Queretaro, Zacatecas andMéxico demonstrated that dogs were infected with adult Echinococcus stages.
  • E U N C O R R3.2 Central America CE has been reported sporadically in humans in the past in countries of Central America, such as Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Cuba, Panama (Sanchez et al., 1992; Sousa and Lombardo Ayala, 1965) and Costa Rica (Brenes Madrigal et al., 1977).
  • Local transmission and molecular data have not been documented for any of these countries.

3.3.1 Host assemblages, transmission and molecular epidemiology

  • In South America, CE is known to occur with high prevalence in parts of Argentina (Patagonia, Pampas, Coast), Bolivia , Brazil , Chile (land central valley regions and extreme ), Peru (central and ern highlands) and Uruguay (see Fig. 6 and Table S5 in the Supplementary Material).
  • Infected animals include two cattle in Santa Fe and two dogs in Catamarca (Kamenetzky et al., 2002).
  • The detailed information (prevalence data in each jurisdiction) is listed in Table S5 of the Supplementary Material.
  • Infected cattle occurred most often in Rio Negro (19.1%), followed by Neuquén and Misiones (15%).

3.3.3 Infection in humans

  • Between January 2009 and December 2014, countries involved in the initiative for the control of CE in South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru and Uruguay) reported 29,556 cases of CE, with the majority of cases in Peru (20,785).
  • The remaining South American countries have not received much attention in the reporting of CE and epidemiological studies are limited (see Fig. 7 and Table S6 in the Supplementary Material).
  • In Venezuela, the first case described in 1938 was not thought to be autochthonous (G omez and Luna, 1938), and only nine autochthonous cases have since been reported (Guanipa et al., 1990).

3.4.1 Introduction

  • For south and southeastern Europe, E. granulosus (sheep strain, genotypes G1-3) represents the principal causative agent of CE.
  • Echinococcus intermedius (pig strain, G7) is the main human CE agent in the Baltic countries (Marcinkut _e et al., 2015).
  • Furthermore, two less pathogenic genotypes of E. canadensis (G8 and G10) have been documented in northern Europe (Oksanen and Lavikainen, 2015).
  • Across Europe the actual prevalence of CE in animals or humans remains fragmented, partly due to the lack of efficient and dedicated reporting systems.
  • An European register that was initiated within the FP7 HERACLES project aiming to provide prospective data on the epidemiology and clinical features of human CE (Rossi et al. (2016); Fig. 8 and Table S7) reports the current distribution of Echinococcus spp. causing CE in Europe (not including the cervid genotypes of E. canadensis).

3.4.1.1.1 Host assemblages, transmission and molecular

  • After a successful control program, Iceland can be regarded as free of CE transmission for decades (Schantz et al., 1995; Sigurdarson, 2010).
  • For the north of Scandinavia, the current epidemiological situation of the cervid strains (G8 and G10) of E. canadensis has recently been reviewed in 10083-APAR-9780128114711 T E D P R O O F s0305 f0045 Figure 8 Current distribution of Echinococcus spp. causing cystic echinococcosis in domestic intermediate hosts (sheep, cattle, pigs and boar) in Europe.

3.5.6 South East Asia: Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic

  • There is no evidence of transmission cycles that maintain the causative agents of CE in Southeast (SE) Asia, encompassing Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) (Craig, 2004; Eckert et al., 2001; McManus, 2010; Schantz et al., 1995).
  • The recent report from Vietnam of a locally acquired case of E. ortleppi in a captive primate, that must have acquired the infection locally, is of particular interest (Plesker et al., 2009).

3.6.1 Host assemblages, transmission and molecular epidemiology

  • Modified version of the map by (Thompson and Jenkins, 2014) depicting areas of high, low and no transmission of Echinococcus granulosus in Australia (dark grey, high transmission; grey, low transmission; white no transmission).
  • Subsequently, anthropogenic factors were responsible for the transmission of the parasite in a domestic cycle involving sheep and dogs leading to high levels of infection in humans, sheep, and to lesser extent, cattle and dogs, as well as the establishment of a wild animal cycle involving dingoes and macropod marsupials on the mainland of Australia.
  • The historical aspects of establishment, perpetuation and control have been reported in many publications [e.g., Gemmell (1990); Schantz et al. (1995); Beard et al. (2001)] and will not be reiterated here.
  • The current situation in both countries will be summarized.
  • The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry declared New Zealand provisionally free of CE in 2002 (Anonymous, 2012).

3.6.2 Infections in animals

  • Fig. 11 reports the current distribution of E. granulosus in domestic intermediate hosts (sheep and cattle) in Australia and in the island state of Tasmania.
  • Hydatid cysts still occur in sheep on the mainland but prevalence has declined steadily during the last 30 years, and sheep most at risk appear to be those exposed to potential spillover from the wild animal cycle (Jenkins et al., 2014; Thompson and Jenkins, 2014).
  • Recent reports of E. granulosus infections in cattle and dogs suggest transmission is still occurring, albeit at low levels (Jenkins et al., 2014).
  • A wild animal cycle of transmission is perpetuated on mainland Australia involving dingoes and macropod marsupials.
  • The fox, although susceptible to infection, is epidemiologically insignificant in transmission [for details see chapter: Ecology and Life Cycle Patterns of Echinococcus Species by Romig et al. (2017)].

3.6.3 Cystic echinococcosis in humans

  • New cases continue to be identified but as with the last hospital-based survey (Jenkins and Power, 1996), a significant proportion is in recently arrived immigrants who contracted infection before migrating to Australia (Thompson and Jenkins, 2014).
  • No new human cases have been reported in Tasmania (O’Hern and Cooley, 2013).

3.7.2.5.1 Host assemblages, transmission and molecular

  • Epidemiology Large-scale surveys on CE in livestock have been done in South Africa in the 1960s (centering on the studies of Anna Verster), indicating that the parasites are widespread at moderate to low levels across 10083-APAR-9780128114711 s0670 130 P.
  • Most of these data derive from opportunistic sampling, and the relative impact of the various parasites on livestock, wildlife and humans and their spatial distribution are still far from clear.
  • One report of E. ortleppi from a Namibian zebra suggests a spill over into wild hosts species (Obwaller et al., 2004).
  • Clinical data from western Zambia gave an annual incidence of 9/105 inhabitants in the years 2006e10 (Banda, 2013), while a recent retrospective study in South Africa reported 137 new cases per year as a most conservative estimate, which corresponds approximately to a countrywide annual incidence of 0.3/105 (Wahlers et al., 2011).

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RESEARCH REPOSITORY
This is the author’s final version of the work, as accepted for publication
following peer review but without the publisher’s layout or pagination.
The definitive version is available at:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.apar.2016.11.001
Deplazes, P., Rinaldi, L., Alvarez Rojas, C.A., Torgerson, P.R., Harandi,
M.F., Romig, T., Antolova, D., Schurer, J.M., Lahmar, S., Cringoli, G.,
Magambo, J., Thompson, R.C.A. and Jenkins, E.J. (2017)
Global distribution of alveolar and cystic echinococcosis.
Advances in Parasitology, 95. pp. 315-493.
http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/35297/
Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V.
UNCORRECTED
PROOF
C0083
Global Distribution of Alveolar
and Cystic Echinococcosis
P. Deplazes*
,1
, L. Rinaldi
x
, C.A. Alvarez Rojas
{
, P. Torgerson*,
M.F. Harandi
jj
, T. Romig
#
, D. Antolova**, J. Schurer
xx,{{
,
S. Lahmar
jjjj
, G. Cringoli
x
, J. Magambo
##
, A. Thompson***,
E. Jenkins
xx
*University of Z€urich, Zurich, Switzerland
x
University of Naples Federico II, Napoli, Italy
{
The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
jj
Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
#
University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
**Institute of Parasitology SAS, Kosice, Slovak Republic
xx
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
{{
University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
jjjj
National School of Veterinary Medicine, Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
##
Meru University of Science and Technology, Meru, Kenya
***Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia
½Q
1
1
Corresponding author: E-mail: deplazesp@access.uzh.ch
Contents
1. General Introduction 3
2. Global Distribution of Echinococcus multilocularis 6
2.1 General information 6
2.1.1 Global distribution 6
2.2 Echinococcus multilocularis and alveolar echinococcosis in Europe 7
2.2.1 Central Europe: France, Belgium, The Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany,
Switzerland, Czech Republic, Austria, Northern Italy
10
2.2.2 Western and Northern Europe: Iceland, Ireland, United Kingdom, Norway,
Sweden, Finland and Denmark
16
2.2.3 Eastern Central Europe: Poland and Baltic countries, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova,
Slovakia, Hungary
17
2.2.4 Southeastern Central Europe: Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, other
Balkan countries and European part of Turkey
20
2.3 Echinococcus multilocularis and alveolar echinococcosis in Asia 22
2.3.1 North Asia and the Russian Federation 22
2.3.2 Caucasus and Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Armenia,
Azerbaijan and Georgia
25
2.3.3 Middle East Countries, e.g., Iran, Turkey 27
2.3.4 North East Asia: China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan 29
2.3.5 South Asia: Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bhutan 34
2.4 Africa 35
Advances in Parasitology, Volume 95
ISSN 0065-308X
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.apar.2016.11.001
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd.
All rights reserved.
1
j
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2.5 North America 35
2.5.1 Mexico, United States of America, Canada and Greenland 35
3. Global Distribution of Echinococcus spp. Causing Cystic Echinococcosis 44
3.1 North America: Mexico, United States, Canada and Greenland 44
3.1.1 Introduction and molecular epidemiology 44
3.1.2 The United States 46
3.1.3 Canada 49
3.1.4 Mexico 52
3.2 Central America 53
3.3 South America: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay,
Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela
54
3.3.1 Host assemblages, transmission and molecular epidemiology 54
3.3.2 Infection in animals 57
3.3.3 Infection in humans 59
3.4 Cystic echinococcosis in Europe 61
3.4.1 Introduction 61
3.4.2 Central Europe: Belgium, The Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland,
Austria and Czech Republic
63
3.4.3 Eastern Central Europe: Poland and Baltic countries, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova,
Slovakia, Hungary
65
3.4.4 Southern Europe: Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Greece 70
3.4.5 Southeastern Central Europe: Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, FYROM (Macedonia) and Albania
78
3.5 Asia (including Eastern Europe) 84
3.5.1 North Asia: Russian Federation 84
3.5.2 Caucasus and Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tadjikistan, Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia
88
3.5.3 Middle East Countries: Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon Oman,
Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Yemen
90
3.5.4 South Asia: Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
Maldives
99
3.5.5 East Asia: China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan 103
3.5.6 South East Asia: Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand and the
Lao People’s Democratic Republic
110
3.6 Australia and New Zealand 111
3.6.1 Host assemblages, transmission and molecular epidemiology 111
3.6.2 Infections in animals 112
3.6.3 Cystic echinococcosis in humans 113
3.7 Africa 113
3.7.1 North Africa: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt 113
3.7.2 Sub-Saharan Africa 121
Acknowledgements 131
Appendix A. Supplementary data 131
References 132
2 P. Deplazes et al.
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Abstract
Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) and cystic echinococcosis (CE) are severe helminthic zoo-
noses. Echinococcus multilocularis (causative agent of AE) is widely distributed in the
northern hemisphere where it is typically maintained in a wild animal cycle including
canids as definitive hosts and rodents as intermediate hosts. The species Echinococcus
granulosus, Echinococcus ortleppi, Echinococcus canadensis and Echinococcus interme-
dius are the causative agents of CE with a worldwide distribution and a highly variable
human disease burden in the different endemic areas depending upon human behav-
ioural risk factors, the diversity and ecology of animal host assemblages and the genetic
diversity within Echinococcus species which differ in their zoonotic potential and path-
ogenicity. Both AE and CE are regarded as neglected zoonoses, with a higher overall
burden of disease for CE due to its global distribution and high regional prevalence,
but a higher pathogenicity and case fatality rate for AE, especially in Asia. Over the
past two decades, numerous studies have addressed the epidemiology and distribu-
tion of these Echinococcus species worldwide, resulting in better-de fi ned boundaries
of the endemic areas. This chapter presents the global distribution of Echinococcus spe-
cies and human AE and CE in maps and summarizes the global data on host assem-
blages, transmission, prevalence in animal definitive hosts, incidence in people and
molecular epidemiology.
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
s0010
p0010
Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) and cystic echinococcosis (CE) are zoo-
notic diseases caused by Echinococcus spp. transmitted from carnivores. The
history of these two distinct diseases has been reviewed in c
hapter ‘Historical
Aspects of Echinococcosis’ by Eckert and Thompson (2017). In this chapter,
the causative agents of human CE (a complex of several species with addi-
tional genotypes) are referred to using the well-recognized genotype termi-
nology (G1eG10), although a more formal taxonomic nomenclature has
now been proposed by Thompson (2017) in c
hapter ‘Biology and System-
atics of Echinococcus’. Human AE is caused by geographically distinct
strains/genotypes of Echinococcus multilocularis.
p0015
In this chapter, we will focus on the distribution of CE in humans and
animal intermediate hosts, as well as intestinal Echinococcus granulosus infec-
tions in definitive hosts. For E. multilocularis, the chapter focuses mainly
on the distribution in canid definitive hosts (predominantly foxes outside
North America and parts of Asia) and on AE in humans.
p0020
Since the last publications focusing on the global distribution of Echino-
coccus spp. (Schantz et al., 1995; Eckert et al., 2001) a considerable amount of
evidence is now available documenting in much more detail the changing
Global Distribution of Alveolar and Cystic Echinococcosis 3
10083-APAR-9780128114711
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PROOF
distribution of both AE and CE. This chapter attempts to give a general
overview on the current distribution and epidemiology of both diseases
but refers to some key reviews for more detailed information and citations.
In addition, the authors present in this review many sources of information
which are not easily available (e.g., the so-called grey literature) or had to be
translated from original languages (e.g. Russian).
p0025
Finally, for more detailed information on the ecology of Echinococcus
spp., including the different cycles and host ranges involved, [see
chapter:
Ecology and Life Cycle Patterns of Echinococcus Species by Romig et al.
(2017) and
chapter: Echinococcosis: Control and Prevention by Craig
et al. (2017)] on the control of both AE and CE.
p0030
The burden of human echinococcosis can be expressed in terms of
disability adjusted life years (DALYs). The global burden of disease of AE
is estimated to be 18,200 cases per annum, resulting in approximately
666,000 DALYs (37 DALYs per case) (Torgerson et al., 2010). However,
91% of cases and 95% of the DALYs were estimated to be in China.
Thus, there are approximately 1600 cases of AE per annum in Europe,
Russia and central Asia resulting in 33,000 or 21 DALYs per case. Survival
analyses of French and Swiss AE patients have shown that modern treat-
ments such as resection of liver lesions followed by prolonged therapy
with benzimadazoles can result in survival of AE patients similar to those
of healthy populations (Torgerson et al., 2008; Piarroux et al., 2011). Where
treatment options are available, the burden in terms of DALYs is modest
because of the improved prognosis; for example, in Switzerland, there is a
total burden of approximately 78 DALYs per annum due to AE, or 3.7
DALYs per case, 10 times less than the global estimate (Torgerson et al.,
2008). This is one important factor for the predominance of the global
burden in China, where the majority of cases were estimated to occur in
resource poor communities on the Tibetan plateau, thus inflating the
DALYs per case. In central Asia this is likely to be similar (Torgerson, 2016).
p0035
The latest estimate for the global burden of CE is 188,000 new cases per
annum resulting in 184,000 DALYs (0.98 DALYs per case (Torgerson et al.,
2015). The much lower human health burden of CE compared to AE is
entirely due to the low mortality rate of CE relative to AE. However, it
is important to note that as the life
cycle of CE in many countries involves
livestock intermediate hosts, there can be economic and animal health re-
percussions beyond that of AE.
p0040
A comprehensive review of peer-reviewed literature was undertaken to
record the current distribution at global, continental, regional, country and
4 P. Deplazes et al.
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Citations
More filters
Journal Article•DOI•
Echinococcosis: Advances in the 21st Century.

[...]

Hao Wen, Lucine Vuitton, Tuerhongjiang Tuxun1, Jun Li1, Dominique A. Vuitton, Wenbao Zhang1, Donald P. McManus2 •
First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University1, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute2
20 Mar 2019-Clinical Microbiology Reviews
TL;DR: Recent acquired genomic and proteomic information can provide a platform for improving diagnosis and for finding new drug and vaccine targets, with direct impact in the future on the control of echinococcosis, which continues to be a global challenge.
Abstract: Echinococcosis is a zoonosis caused by cestodes of the genus Echinococcus (family Taeniidae). This serious and near-cosmopolitan disease continues to be a significant public health issue, with western China being the area of highest endemicity for both the cystic (CE) and alveolar (AE) forms of echinococcosis. Considerable advances have been made in the 21st century on the genetics, genomics, and molecular epidemiology of the causative parasites, on diagnostic tools, and on treatment techniques and control strategies, including the development and deployment of vaccines. In terms of surgery, new procedures have superseded traditional techniques, and total cystectomy in CE, ex vivo resection with autotransplantation in AE, and percutaneous and perendoscopic procedures in both diseases have improved treatment efficacy and the quality of life of patients. In this review, we summarize recent progress on the biology, epidemiology, diagnosis, management, control, and prevention of CE and AE. Currently there is no alternative drug to albendazole to treat echinococcosis, and new compounds are required urgently. Recently acquired genomic and proteomic information can provide a platform for improving diagnosis and for finding new drug and vaccine targets, with direct impact in the future on the control of echinococcosis, which continues to be a global challenge.

460 citations

Cites background or methods from "Global Distribution of Alveolar and..."

  • ...AE had not been considered a mainstream human health issue in North America other than in Alaska until recently, and E. multilocularis has not been reported from Mexico or the southern United States (13)....

    [...]

  • ...The role of dogs in AE transmission is especially important in western China and in central Asia (53, 246) and may be more relevant in Europe than previously considered; conversely, a wildlife cycle may also be of concern for CE, especially in Africa (13, 247)....

    [...]

  • ...Yes Cosmopolitan Echinococcus canadensis Domestic dog, wolf Pig, camel, cervids Yes Eurasia, Africa, North and South America Echinococcus ortleppi Domestic dog Cattle Yes Eurasia, Africa Echinococcus felidis Lion Hyena, warthog, zebra, wildebeest, bush pig, buffalo, various antelopes, giraffe, hippopotamus Not reported Africa Echinococcus equinus Domestic dog Horse, other equids, cervids Not reported Eurasia, Africa Echinococcus multilocularis All fox species, wolf, raccoon dog, domestic dog, cat Arvicoline and microtine rodents and small herbivorous mammals, including lagomorphs (e.g., pika); pigs, boars, horses, cattle, nutrias, nonhuman primates, and dogs are accidental hosts Yes Eurasia, North America Echinococcus oligarthra Wild felids (e.g., Puma concolor [puma]) Dasyprocta azarae (agouti), Didelphis marsupialis (opossum) Yes Central and South America Echinococcus vogeli Bush dog, domestic dog Cuniculus paca Linnaeus, 1766 (paca) Yes Central and South America Echinococcus shiquicus Tibetan fox Ochotona curzoniae (Tibetan plateau pika) Not reported Tibetan Plateau April 2019 Volume 32 Issue 2 e00075-18 cmr.asm.org 6 oligarthrus” [“arthra” being the plural of the Greek noun “arthron,” which means “joints” {i.e., proglottids}, and not an adjective subject to gender agreement with “Echinococcus” {48}]) are restricted to Central and South America (42, 60, 61)....

    [...]

  • ...However, studies in Africa have revealed a significant number of human cases and active transmission in animals, including wildlife, in countries hitherto considered not to be areas of endemicity (12, 13)....

    [...]

  • ...In regard to North America, the north-central United States, northwestern Alaska, and northwestern Canada have long been areas of E. multilocularis endemicity, but the parasite’s geographic range appears to be expanding due, at least in part, to increased and improved sampling efforts and the targeting of definitive hosts other than foxes (such as coyotes [Canis latrans]) (13)....

    [...]

Book Chapter•DOI•
Ecology and Life Cycle Patterns of Echinococcus Species.

[...]

Thomas Romig1, Peter Deplazes2, David Jenkins3, Patrick Giraudoux4, Alessandro Massolo5, Philip S. Craig6, Marion Wassermann1, Kenichi Takahashi7, M L de la Rue8 •
University of Hohenheim1, University of Zurich2, Charles Sturt University3, Institut Universitaire de France4, University of Calgary5, University of Salford6, Rakuno Gakuen University7, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria8
01 Jan 2017-Advances in Parasitology
TL;DR: This work reviews existing information on transmission routes and life cycles in different geographical contexts and - where available - includes basic biological information of parasites and hosts (e.g., susceptibility of host species).
Abstract: The genus Echinococcus is composed of eight generally recognized species and one genotypic cluster (Echinococcus canadensis cluster) that may in future be resolved into one to three species. For each species, we review existing information on transmission routes and life cycles in different geographical contexts and - where available - include basic biological information of parasites and hosts (e.g., susceptibility of host species). While some Echinococcus spp. are transmitted in life cycles that involve predominantly domestic animals (e.g., dog - livestock cycles), others are wildlife parasites that do or do not interact with domestic transmission. In many cases, life cycle patterns of the same parasite species differ according to geography. Simple life cycles contrast with transmission patterns that are highly complex, involving multihost systems that may include both domestic and wild mammals. Wildlife transmission may be primary or secondary, i.e., resulting from spillovers from domestic animals. For most of the species and regions, existing information does not yet permit a conclusive description of transmission systems. Such data, however, would be highly relevant, e.g., for anticipation of geographical changes of the presence and frequency of these parasites in a warming world, or for initiating evidence-based control strategies.

279 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
International consensus on terminology to be used in the field of echinococcoses.

[...]

Dominique A. Vuitton, Donald P. McManus1, M.T. Rogan2, Thomas Romig3, Bruno Gottstein4, Ariel Naidich5, Tuerhongjiang Tuxun, Hao Wen, Antonio Menezes da Silva •
QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute1, University of Salford2, University of Hohenheim3, University of Bern4, National Institutes of Health5
03 Jun 2020-Parasite
TL;DR: The main achievements of this process were an update of the current nomenclature of Echinococcus spp, and an agreement on a standardized description of the surgical operations for CE according to the “Approach, cyst Opening, Resection, and Completeness” framework.
Abstract: Echinococcoses require the involvement of specialists from nearly all disciplines; standardization of the terminology used in the field is thus crucial. To harmonize echinococcosis terminology on sound scientific and linguistic grounds, the World Association of Echinococcosis launched a Formal Consensus process. Under the coordination of a Steering and Writing Group (SWG), a Consultation and Rating Group (CRG) had the main missions of (1) providing input on the list of terms drafted by the SWG, taking into account the available literature and the participants' experience; and (2) providing independent rating on all debated terms submitted to vote. The mission of the Reading and Review Group (RRG) was to give an opinion about the recommendation paper in terms of readability, acceptability and applicability. The main achievements of this process were: (1) an update of the current nomenclature of Echinococcus spp.; (2) an agreement on three names of diseases due to Echinococcus spp.: Cystic Echinococcosis (CE), Alveolar Echinococcosis (AE) and Neotropical Echinococcosis (NE), and the exclusion of all other names; (3) an agreement on the restricted use of the adjective "hydatid" to refer to the cyst and fluid due to E. granulosus sensu lato; and (4) an agreement on a standardized description of the surgical operations for CE, according to the "Approach, cyst Opening, Resection, and Completeness" (AORC) framework. In addition, 95 "approved" and 60 "rejected" terms were listed. The recommendations provided in this paper will be applicable to scientific publications in English and communication with professionals. They will be used for translation into other languages spoken in endemic countries.

141 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Zoonotic Parasites of Sheltered and Stray Dogs in the Era of the Global Economic and Political Crisis

[...]

Domenico Otranto1, Filipe Dantas-Torres2, Andrei Daniel Mihalca3, Rebecca J. Traub4, Michael R. Lappin5, Gad Baneth6 •
University of Bari1, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation2, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca3, University of Melbourne4, Colorado State University5, Hebrew University of Jerusalem6
01 Oct 2017-Trends in Parasitology
TL;DR: The importance of sheltered and stray dogs as reservoirs of zoonotic parasites in different parts of the world is reviewed, especially in the context of the current global political and economic crisis.

110 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Public health risks associated with food-borne parasites.

[...]

Kostas Koutsoumanis, Ana Allende, Avelino Alvarez-Ordóñez, Declan Bolton, Sara Bover-Cid, Marianne Chemaly, Robert Davies, Alessandra De Cesare, Lieve Herman, Friederike Hilbert, Roland Lindqvist, Maarten Nauta, Luísa Peixe, Giuseppe Ru, Marion Simmons, Panagiotis N. Skandamis, Elisabetta Suffredini, Simone M. Cacciò, Rachel M. Chalmers, Peter Deplazes, Brecht Devleesschauwer, Elisabeth A. Innes, Thomas Romig, Joke van der Giessen, Michaela Hempen, Yves Van der Stede, Lucy J. Robertson 
01 Dec 2018-EFSA Journal
TL;DR: Current methods for detection, identification and tracing of these parasites in relevant foods are reviewed, literature on food‐borne pathways is reviewed, information on their occurrence and persistence in foods is examined, and possible control measures along the food chain are investigated.
Abstract: Parasites are important food-borne pathogens. Their complex lifecycles, varied transmission routes, and prolonged periods between infection and symptoms mean that the public health burden and relative importance of different transmission routes are often difficult to assess. Furthermore, there are challenges in detection and diagnostics, and variations in reporting. A Europe-focused ranking exercise, using multicriteria decision analysis, identified potentially food-borne parasites of importance, and that are currently not routinely controlled in food. These are Cryptosporidium spp., Toxoplasma gondii and Echinococcus spp. Infection with these parasites in humans and animals, or their occurrence in food, is not notifiable in all Member States. This Opinion reviews current methods for detection, identification and tracing of these parasites in relevant foods, reviews literature on food-borne pathways, examines information on their occurrence and persistence in foods, and investigates possible control measures along the food chain. The differences between these three parasites are substantial, but for all there is a paucity of well-established, standardised, validated methods that can be applied across the range of relevant foods. Furthermore, the prolonged period between infection and clinical symptoms (from several days for Cryptosporidium to years for Echinococcus spp.) means that source attribution studies are very difficult. Nevertheless, our knowledge of the domestic animal lifecycle (involving dogs and livestock) for Echinoccocus granulosus means that this parasite is controllable. For Echinococcus multilocularis, for which the lifecycle involves wildlife (foxes and rodents), control would be expensive and complicated, but could be achieved in targeted areas with sufficient commitment and resources. Quantitative risk assessments have been described for Toxoplasma in meat. However, for T. gondii and Cryptosporidium as faecal contaminants, development of validated detection methods, including survival/infectivity assays and consensus molecular typing protocols, are required for the development of quantitative risk assessments and efficient control measures.

99 citations

Cites background from "Global Distribution of Alveolar and..."

  • ...This has been achieved through improved general slaughtering hygiene (and without any specific control measures implemented) in large parts of central and western Europe, where CE is now reduced to sporadic occurrences only (Deplazes et al., 2017)....

    [...]

  • ...Even if human echinococcosis is notifiable in some MS, in practice, these parasitic diseases are largely underreported in Europe....

    [...]

  • ...In parts of its worldwide range (Deplazes et al., 2017), wild animals can also, to various degrees, be involved (wild canids as definitive hosts, various large wild herbivores as intermediate hosts)....

    [...]

  • ...EUSR 2017 Cryptosporidum spp COST Action on foodborne parasites (2016) listed the following foodborne parasites as being of most importance in Europe: Echinococcus multilocularis, Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinella spiralis, Echinococcus granulousus, Cryptosporidium spp., other Trichinella spp. BIOHAZ opinions on meat inspection identified Toxoplasma gondii as relevant public health hazard in meat; EFSA grant on Toxoplasma gondii in meat generated new data Suggestion to focus this BIOHAZ Panel self-task mandate on Echinococcus spp., Toxoplasma gondii, and Cryptosporidium Background to Scientific opinion 1....

    [...]

  • ...A steady increase in cases was reported from Poland between 1990 and 2011 (Deplazes et al., 2017)....

    [...]

References
More filters
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TCS: a computer program to estimate gene genealogies.

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Mark J. Clement1, David Posada1, Keith A. Crandall1•
Brigham Young University1
01 Oct 2000-Molecular Ecology

9,118 citations

"Global Distribution of Alveolar and..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Older estimates of surgical CE incidences for the Turkana region in Kenya were 40e98/10(5) inhabitants (Clement et al., 2000) with a peak value of 220 in the northwestern part of the region (French and Nelson, 1982)....

    [...]

Journal Article•DOI•
Genetic variants within the genus Echinococcus identified by mitochondrial DNA sequencing.

[...]

Josephine Bowles1, David Blair2, Donald P. McManus1•
QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute1, James Cook University2
01 Sep 1992-Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology
TL;DR: The sequence of a region of the rapidly evolving mitochondrial genome is useful as a marker of species and strain identity and as a preliminary indication of evolutionary divergence within the genus Echinococcus.

984 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Echinococcosis: a review

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Pedro L. Moro1, Peter M. Schantz1•
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1
01 Mar 2009-International Journal of Infectious Diseases
TL;DR: Despite some progress in the control of echinococcosis, this zoonosis continues to be a major public health problem in several countries, and in several others it constitutes an emerging and re-emerging disease.

895 citations

"Global Distribution of Alveolar and..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Today, autochthonous cases are rare, with sporadic cases in Alaska, California and Utah (Moro and Schantz, 2009)....

    [...]

  • ...In the last 30 years, large scale surveys of Utah slaughterhouses observed CE in 1.6e8....

    [...]

  • ...Sheep dogs imported from Australia in 1938 likely introduced E. granulosus to Utah, after which it spread to surrounding states (Crellin et al., 1982)....

    [...]

  • ...Approximately one to four cases occur among Navajo tribes in New Mexico and Arizona each year (Moro and Schantz, 2009)....

    [...]

  • ...The maintenance of a dogesheep assemblage was confirmed by longitudinal 10083-APAR-9780128114711 p0735 s0250 p0740 Global Distribution of Alveolar and Cystic Echinococcosis 49 ARTICLE IN PRESS U N C O R R E C T E D P R O O F surveillance of dogs and sheep in the 1970s, reporting adult cestodes in 11.3% (N ¼ 839) of Utah dogs (Loveless et al., 1978), followed by detection in Navajo dogs (0.7% of 429) in Arizona and New Mexico (Schantz et al., 1977a,b)....

    [...]

Journal Article•DOI•
Domestication and early agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact

[...]

Melinda A. Zeder1•
National Museum of Natural History1
19 Aug 2008-Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
TL;DR: Evidence for herd management and crop cultivation appears at least 1,000 years earlier than the morphological changes traditionally used to document domestication, and the initial steps toward plant and animal domestication in the Eastern Mediterranean can be pushed back to the 12th millennium cal B.P.
Abstract: The past decade has witnessed a quantum leap in our understanding of the origins, diffusion, and impact of early agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin. In large measure these advances are attributable to new methods for documenting domestication in plants and animals. The initial steps toward plant and animal domestication in the Eastern Mediterranean can now be pushed back to the 12th millennium cal B.P. Evidence for herd management and crop cultivation appears at least 1,000 years earlier than the morphological changes traditionally used to document domestication. Different species seem to have been domesticated in different parts of the Fertile Crescent, with genetic analyses detecting multiple domestic lineages for each species. Recent evidence suggests that the expansion of domesticates and agricultural economies across the Mediterranean was accomplished by several waves of seafaring colonists who established coastal farming enclaves around the Mediterranean Basin. This process also involved the adoption of domesticates and domestic technologies by indigenous populations and the local domestication of some endemic species. Human environmental impacts are seen in the complete replacement of endemic island faunas by imported mainland fauna and in today's anthropogenic, but threatened, Mediterranean landscapes where sustainable agricultural practices have helped maintain high biodiversity since the Neolithic.

825 citations

Book•
Working to overcome the global impact of neglected tropical diseases : first WHO report on neglected tropical diseases

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Denis Daumerie, Lorenzo Savioli, D. W. T. Crompton, Patricia Peters, Margaret Chan 
01 Jan 2010

793 citations

Related Papers (5)
Expert consensus for the diagnosis and treatment of cystic and alveolar echinococcosis in humans

[...]

01 Apr 2010-Acta Tropica
Enrico Brunetti, Peter Kern, Dominique A. Vuitton
Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato genotypes infecting humans--review of current knowledge.

[...]

01 Jan 2014-International Journal for Parasitology
Cristian A. Alvarez Rojas, Thomas Romig, Marshall W. Lightowlers
Biological, Epidemiological, and Clinical Aspects of Echinococcosis, a Zoonosis of Increasing Concern

[...]

01 Jan 2004-Clinical Microbiology Reviews
Johannes Eckert, Peter Deplazes
Genetic variants within the genus Echinococcus identified by mitochondrial DNA sequencing.

[...]

01 Sep 1992-Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology
Josephine Bowles, David Blair, Donald P. McManus
Global Socioeconomic Impact of Cystic Echinococcosis

[...]

01 Feb 2006-Emerging Infectious Diseases
Christine M. Budke, Peter Deplazes, Paul R. Torgerson
Frequently Asked Questions (17)
Q1. What are the contributions mentioned in the paper "Global distribution of alveolar and cystic echinococcosis" ?

Eckert et al. this paper presented the global distribution of Echinococcus species and human AE and CE in maps and summarized the global data on host assemblages, transmission, prevalence in animal definitive hosts, incidence in people and molecular epidemiology. 

Buffaloes and cattle are generally considered the most significant intermediate hosts for sustaining the life cycle (Pednekar et al., 2009). 

Because of potential spillover to domestic dogs and sheep, the presence of this cycle will prevent elimination of CE on mainland Australia. 

Gender (females > males), indigenous ethnicity and residence north of 55 N are considered contemporary risk factors for autochthonous CE (Gilbert et al., 2010; Jenkins et al., 2013; Somily et al., 2005). 

After the division of Cyprus in 1974, the control program was consolidated in the Greek Cypriot sector and this part of the island is virtually free of CE transmission. 

In Turkey, official reports from the Ministry of Health document more than 52,000 patients undergoing CE-related surgery between 1990 and 2005 (approximately to 3257 patients per year). 

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a retrospective study based on unpublished data reported a high CE prevalence in cattle (27.2%) and sheep (80.3%). 

Goats may therefore be a key species to maintain the ‘camel strain’ in Africa, south of the camel husbandry region, and may be an important additional host for the ‘cattle strain’. 

Assuming that it is relatively low, the duration can be assumed to be the residual life expectancy from the time of diagnosis, which in most studies is between 35 and 40 years, giving a residual life expectancy of 42 years using the latest Chinese life table. 

a study conducted of hunting dogs in Corsica showed the presence of E. intermedius (G6/7) in 1.2% of animals examined (Umhang et al., 2014c). 

Older estimates of surgical CE incidences for the Turkana region in Kenya were 40e98/105 inhabitants (Clement et al., 2000) with a peak value of 220 in the northwestern part of the region (French and Nelson, 1982). 

A hospital-based study in north India (Khurana et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2014a) estimated the yearly total number of diagnosed cases without surgery to be 17,075 and the total number of diagnosed cases with surgical/interventional procedure to be 5646. 

These animals in some areas may be fed offal as food sources and/or have access to the location where animals are slaughtered as well as to livestock rearing areas and carcasses. 

These animals in some areas may be fed offal as food sources and/or have access to the location where animals are slaughtered as well as to livestock rearing areas and carcasses. 

In the Russian Federation (see Table 1), haplotypes of four assemblages of E. multilocularis have been confirmed: a European haplotype from a captive monkey (Moscow Zoo), an Asian haplotype in western Siberia and European Russia, the Mongolian haplotype on an island of Baikal Lake and in the Altai Republic and the North American (N1) haplotype in Yakutia (Konyaev et al., 2013).10083-APAR-9780128114711s0130 p0380p0385p0390s0135 p039524 P. 

infections in swine were of major significance in the past (Dakkak, 2010); however, recently infections in sheep might be of higher relevance (Bobic et al., 2012). 

In Lithuania, E. intermedius (the pig strain, G7) with a farm dogepig cycle maintained by home slaughter practices has been predominantly observed in humans, pigs, cattle (sterile cysts) and in dogs (Bruzinskaite et al., 2009).