Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being.
01 Jan 1989-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (American Psychological Association)-Vol. 57, Iss: 6, pp 1069-1081
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the relationship between self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth, and found that these aspects are not strongly tied to prior assessment indexes.
Abstract: Reigning measures of psychological well-being have little theoretical grounding, despite an extensive literature on the contours of positive functioning. Aspects of well-being derived from this literature (i.e., self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth) were operationalized. Three hundred and twenty-one men and women, divided among young, middle-aged, and older adults, rated themselves on these measures along with six instruments prominent in earlier studies (i.e., affect balance, life satisfaction, self-esteem, morale, locus of control, depression). Results revealed that positive relations with others, autonomy, purpose in life, and personal growth were not strongly tied to prior assessment indexes, thereby supporting the claim that key aspects of positive functioning have not been represented in the empirical arena. Furthermore, age profiles revealed a more differentiated pattern of well-being than is evident in prior research.
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TL;DR: Correlational, quasi-experimental, and laboratory studies show that the MAAS measures a unique quality of consciousness that is related to a variety of well-being constructs, that differentiates mindfulness practitioners from others, and that is associated with enhanced self-awareness.
Abstract: Mindfulness is an attribute of consciousness long believed to promote well-being. This research provides a theoretical and empirical examination of the role of mindfulness in psychological well-being. The development and psychometric properties of the dispositional Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) are described. Correlational, quasi-experimental, and laboratory studies then show that the MAAS measures a unique quality of consciousness that is related to a variety of well-being constructs, that differentiates mindfulness practitioners from others, and that is associated with enhanced selfawareness. An experience-sampling study shows that both dispositional and state mindfulness predict self-regulated behavior and positive emotional states. Finally, a clinical intervention study with cancer patients demonstrates that increases in mindfulness over time relate to declines in mood disturbance and stress. Many philosophical, spiritual, and psychological traditions emphasize the importance of the quality of consciousness for the maintenance and enhancement of well-being (Wilber, 2000). Despite this, it is easy to overlook the importance of consciousness in human well-being because almost everyone exercises its primary capacities, that is, attention and awareness. Indeed, the relation between qualities of consciousness and well-being has received little empirical attention. One attribute of consciousness that has been much-discussed in relation to well-being is mindfulness. The concept of mindfulness has roots in Buddhist and other contemplative traditions where conscious attention and awareness are actively cultivated. It is most commonly defined as the state of being attentive to and aware of what is taking place in the present. For example, Nyanaponika Thera (1972) called mindfulness “the clear and single-minded awareness of what actually happens to us and in us at the successive moments of perception” (p. 5). Hanh (1976) similarly defined mindfulness as “keeping one’s consciousness alive to the present reality” (p. 11). Recent research has shown that the enhancement of mindfulness through training facilitates a variety of well-being outcomes (e.g., Kabat-Zinn, 1990). To date, however, there has been little work examining this attribute as a naturally occurring characteristic. Recognizing that most everyone has the capacity to attend and to be aware, we nonetheless assume (a) that individuals differ in their propensity or willingness to be aware and to sustain attention to what is occurring in the present and (b) that this mindful capacity varies within persons, because it can be sharpened or dulled by a variety of factors. The intent of the present research is to reliably identify these inter- and intrapersonal variations in mindfulness, establish their relations to other relevant psychological constructs, and demonstrate their importance to a variety of forms of psychological well-being.
9,818 citations
TL;DR: Five studies tested two general hypotheses: Individuals differ in their use of emotion regulation strategies such as reappraisal and suppression, and these individual differences have implications for affect, well-being, and social relationships.
Abstract: Five studies tested two general hypotheses: Individuals differ in their use of emotion regulation strategies such as reappraisal and suppression, and these individual differences have implications for affect, well-being, and social relationships. Study 1 presents new measures of the habitual use of reappraisal and suppression. Study 2 examines convergent and discriminant validity. Study 3 shows that reappraisers experience and express greater positive emotion and lesser negative emotion, whereas suppressors experience and express lesser positive emotion, yet experience greater negative emotion. Study 4 indicates that using reappraisal is associated with better interpersonal functioning, whereas using suppression is associated with worse interpersonal functioning. Study 5 shows that using reappraisal is related positively to well-being, whereas using suppression is related negatively.
8,261 citations
Cites background from "Happiness is everything, or is it? ..."
...In terms of Ryff’s (1989) domains of well-being, they also had higher levels of environmental mastery, personal growth, self-acceptance, and a clearer purpose in life....
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TL;DR: This review considers research from both perspectives concerning the nature of well-being, its antecedents, and its stability across time and culture.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract Well-being is a complex construct that concerns optimal experience and functioning. Current research on well-being has been derived from two general perspectives: the hedonic approach, which focuses on happiness and defines well-being in terms of pleasure attainment and pain avoidance; and the eudaimonic approach, which focuses on meaning and self-realization and defines well-being in terms of the degree to which a person is fully functioning. These two views have given rise to different research foci and a body of knowledge that is in some areas divergent and in others complementary. New methodological developments concerning multilevel modeling and construct comparisons are also allowing researchers to formulate new questions for the field. This review considers research from both perspectives concerning the nature of well-being, its antecedents, and its stability across time and culture.
8,243 citations
TL;DR: Research suggesting that certain illusions may be adaptive for mental health and well-being is reviewed, examining evidence that a set of interrelated positive illusions—namely, unrealistically positive self-evaluations, exaggerated perceptions of control or mastery, and unrealistic optimism—can serve a wide variety of cognitive, affective, and social functions.
Abstract: Many prominent theorists have argued that accurate perceptions of the self, the world, and the future are essential for mental health. Yet considerable research evidence suggests that overly positive selfevaluations, exaggerated perceptions of control or mastery, and unrealistic optimism are characteristic of normal human thought. Moreover, these illusions appear to promote other criteria of mental health, including the ability to care about others, the ability to be happy or contented, and the ability to engage in productive and creative work. These strategies may succeed, in large part, because both the social world and cognitive-processing mechanisms impose niters on incoming information that distort it in a positive direction; negative information may be isolated and represented in as unthreatening a manner as possible. These positive illusions may be especially useful when an individual receives negative feedback or is otherwise threatened and may be especially adaptive under these circumstances. Decades of psychological wisdom have established contact with reality as a hallmark of mental health. In this view, the well-adjusted person is thought to engage in accurate reality testing, whereas the individual whose vision is clouded by illusion is regarded as vulnerable to, if not already a victim of, mental illness. Despite its plausibility, this viewpoint is increasingly difficult to maintain (cf. Lazarus, 1983). A substantial amount of research testifies to the prevalence of illusion in normal human cognition (see Fiske& Taylor, 1984;Greenwald, 1980; Nisbett & Ross, 1980; Sackeim, 1983; Taylor, 1983). Moreover, these illusions often involve central aspects of the self and the environment and, therefore, cannot be dismissed as inconsequential. In this article, we review research suggesting that certain illusions may be adaptive for mental health and well-being. In particular, we examine evidence that a set of interrelated positive illusions—namely, unrealistically positive self-evaluations, exaggerated perceptions of control or mastery, and unrealistic optimism—can serve a wide variety of cognitive, affective, and social functions. We also attempt to resolve the following para
7,519 citations
TL;DR: The results reveal that happiness is associated with and precedes numerous successful outcomes, as well as behaviors paralleling success, and the evidence suggests that positive affect may be the cause of many of the desirable characteristics, resources, and successes correlated with happiness.
Abstract: Numerous studies show that happy individuals are successful across multiple life domains, including marriage, friendship, income, work performance, and health. The authors suggest a conceptual model to account for these findings, arguing that the happiness-success link exists not only because success makes people happy, but also because positive affect engenders success. Three classes of evidence--crosssectional, longitudinal, and experimental--are documented to test their model. Relevant studies are described and their effect sizes combined meta-analytically. The results reveal that happiness is associated with and precedes numerous successful outcomes, as well as behaviors paralleling success. Furthermore, the evidence suggests that positive affect--the hallmark of well-being--may be the cause of many of the desirable characteristics, resources, and successes correlated with happiness. Limitations, empirical issues, and important future research questions are discussed.
5,713 citations
Cites background from "Happiness is everything, or is it? ..."
...Happiness is one of life’s goods, but it exists in the context of a variety of other goods (Ryff, 1989; Ryff & Singer, 1998)....
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...…Wong, 1989a 123 MUNSH Cognitive jealousy .08 Pfeiffer & Wong, 1989a 123 MUNSH Emotional jealousy .24 Pfeiffer & Wong, 1989a 123 MUNSH Behavioral jealousy .17 Ryff, 1989 321 Life Satisfaction Index Personal growth .38 Schimmack et al., 2004a (Study 1) 136 SWLS Self-rated assertiveness .21 Schimmack…...
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..., in press), and a sense of personal mastery and control (Csikszentmihalyi & Wong, 1991; Grob, Stetsenko, Sabatier, Botcheva, & Macek, 1999; Lyubomirsky et al., in press; Ryff, 1989)....
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...…2000; Schimmack, Oishi, Furr, & Funder, 2004; Tarlow & Haaga, 1996), optimism (Campbell, 1981; Lyubomirsky et al., in press), and a sense of personal mastery and control (Csikszentmihalyi & Wong, 1991; Grob, Stetsenko, Sabatier, Botcheva, & Macek, 1999; Lyubomirsky et al., in press; Ryff, 1989)....
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TL;DR: This monograph is the first of a series published under the rubric ofPsychological Issuesthat deals with the analytic theory of behavior and is the theme of all of Erik Eriksen's unique contributions.
Abstract: This monograph is the first of a series published under the rubric ofPsychological Issuesthat deals with the analytic theory of behavior. The republication of this selected paper was deemed necessary because of its pregnant observations and because of repeated references to it in both the psychiatric literature and discussions. The title is self-explanatory and is the theme of all of Erik Eriksen's unique contributions. Eriksen believes each man completes a continuum of individual life cycles. With each life cycle there is an emergence of socially definable identity. Identity formation is dependent on the process by which society identifies the young individual. The social process moulds generations in order to be reinvigorated. This interdependence of the individual aspiration and societal striving is indispensable to human life. The author adumbrates a concept of epigenesis by which he synthesizes and "dovetails psychosexual and psychosocial" development. He believes in the innate development
2,514 citations
"Happiness is everything, or is it? ..." refers background in this paper
...mulations suggested, for example, that certain aspects of wellbeing such as self-acceptance or autonomy are more easily achieved by the aged (see Buhler & Massarik, 1968; Erikson, 1959), whereas other dimensions (e....
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Book•
30 Nov 1976
TL;DR: In this article, the authors developed indicators of perceived well-being and developed a conceptual model to predict the quality of life of a person in the United Kingdom, based on the relationship between single concern measures and the global measures.
Abstract: 1: Introduction- Social Indicators- Characteristics of Social Indicators- Quality of Life- Objective and Subjective Indicators- The Research Problem- Research Goals- Usefulness- Basic Concepts and a Conceptual Model- Domains and Criteria- A Conceptual Model- Going Beyond the Model- Dimensional Expansion of the Model- Feedback Loops- Processes That Generate Affective Evaluations- Methods and Data- The Measurement of Affective Evaluations- Data Sources- National-Level Surveys- Local-Level Survey- Summary- 1: Developing Indicators of Perceived Well-Being- 2: Identifying and Mapping Concerns- Research Strategy- Identifying Concerns- Mapping the Concerns- Maps and the Mapping Process- Perceptual Structures-July Respondents- Description of the Structure- Interpretation of Dimensions- Relationships Among Concerns- Perceptual Structures-May and November Respondents- Perceptual Structures-April Respondents- Perceptual Structures-After Equating for Level and Variability of Evaluations- Perceptual Structures-Subgroups of the Population- Men and Women- Four Age Groups- Blacks- Groups with High or Low Status- Selecting and Clustering Concern-Level Measures- Methodology- Clusters- Affective Evaluations Versus Unspecified Feelings- Summary- 3: Measuring Global Well-Being- On the Existence of Global Assessments of Life Quality- The Global Measures and a Typology for Classifying Them- General Assessments of Life-as-a-Whole from an "Absolute" Perspective- Full-Range Measures- Part-Range Measures- More Specific Qualities of Life-as-a-Whole, "Absolute" Perspective- Assessments of Life-as-a-Whole from a Relative Perspective- Assessment of Life-as-a-Whole from the Perspectives of Long- or Short-Term Change- Long-Term Change- Short-Term Change- Supplementary Global Measures- Formal Structure of the Typology- Interrelationships Among Global Measures- Overview of Results- Results from April Respondents- Relationships Among Global Measures- Smallest Space Analysis- Results for Subgroups- Summary of Results from April Respondents- Results from November Respondents- Relationships Among Global Measures- Factor Analysis- Summary of Results from November Respondents- Results from July Respondents- Relationships Among Global Measures- Factor Analysis- Summary- 4: Predicting Global Well-Being: I- Life 3 A Measure of Global Well-Being- Topics to Be Discussed and Overview of Results- Relationships Between Single Concern Measures and Life 3- Multivariate Prediction of Life 3- Models for Predicting Life 3 from Concern Measures- Linearities- Lack of Interactions- Weighting Schemes- Conclusions and Comments About the Prediction Model- Predicting Life 3 Using Different Sets of Concern Measures- Results from May Respondents- Results from November Respondents- Results from April Respondents- Results from July Respondents- Using Classification Variables to Predict Life 3- Results from May Respondents- Results from April Respondents- Lack of Statistical Interactions- Evaluation of Predictive Levels Achieved- May Data- July Data- November and April Data- Prediction of Life 3 in Subgroups of the Population- Summary- 5: Predicting Global Well-Being: II- Plan of the Chapter and Overview of Results- Relationships Between Single Concern Measures and the Global Measures- Type A Global Measures- Type B Global Measures- Type C Global Measures- Type D Global Measures- Type E Global Measures- Type F Global Measures- Type G Global Measures- Comment- Multivariate Prediction of Global Measures- Summary- 6: Evaluating the Measures of Well-Being- Plan of the Chapter and Overview of Results- Estimation of the Validity and Error Components of the Measures- Measurement Theory and Models- Variance Components- Measurement Models- Construct Validity and Measurement Models- Estimates Derived from the July Data- Nature of the July Data- The Measurement Model- The Results- Summary and Comments Regarding July Results- The Reliability of the Life Measures in National Data- Estimates Derived from the May Data- Estimates Derived from the April Data- Estimates Derived from the November Data- Estimates Derived from the October Data- Comparison of Validity Estimates for Different Methods- Distributions Produced by the More Valid Methods- Statistical Results- Conclusions and Comments About Distribution Forms- Overall Evaluations, Additional Criteria, Further Improvements- Category Labeling and Ease of Use- Overall Evaluations- Toward Further Improvements- Relationships Between Measures of Perceived Well-Being and Other Types of Variables- Summary- 7: Exploring the Dynamics of Evaluation- Organization of the Chapter and Summary of Results- Exploration 1: A Statistical Translation Between the Delighted-Terrible Scale and the Faces, Circles, and Ladder Scales- Exploration 2: The D-T Scale Categories and Three More General Levels of Evaluation- Exploration 3: Hypothetical Family Incomes and Affective Evaluations on the D-T Scale- Exploration 4: The Role of Perceptions About the Past and Future in Predicting Present Evaluations- Exploration 5: Six Frames of Reference and Evaluations of Well-Being- Exploration 6: An Implementation of the Domains-by-Criteria Model- The Problem- Design of the Analysis and Measures Employed- Results- Bivariate Relationships- Multivariate Relationships- Conclusions- Exploration 7: Comparisons Between One's Own Well-Being and That of Others- Exploration 8: Judgments of the "Importance" of Concerns- Exploration 9: Searching for People with Distinctive Patterns of Feelings About Well-Being- Summary- 2: Well-Being in the United States: Americans' Perceptions- 8: Americans' Well-Being: Specific Life Concerns- The Nation- The National Government- Local Government- Economic Situation- Community- Services and Facilities- Education- Jobs- Neighborhood- Friends and Associates- Home- Leisure and Leisure-Time Facilities- Family- Self- Interpersonal Relations- Seasonal Changes- Comparisons Among Means- Skewness, Bias, and Spread- Discussion- Summary- 9: Americans' Well-Being: Differences Among Population Groups- Groups Identified- Comparison of General Well-Being in Different Groups- Men and Women- Age Groups- Family Life-Cycle- Socioeconomic Status- Blacks and Whites- Nondifferences- Discussion- Summary- 10: Americans' Well-Being: Life-as-a-Whole- Evaluations of Life-as-a-Whole by the Total Population- General Evaluations of Life-as-a-Whole- Absolute Perspective (Type A and B Measures)- Long-Term Changes in Well-Being (Type E Measures)- Own Well-Being Relative to That of Others (Type D Measures)- More Specific Evaluations of Life-as-a-Whole (Type C Measures)- Satisfaction, Happiness, Worries- Positive Affect, Negative Affect, Affect Balance- Selected Other Qualities of Life-as-a-Whole- Evaluations of Life-as-a-Whole in Population Groups- General Evaluations of Life-as-a-Whole- Absolute Perspective (Type A Measures)- Long-Term Changes in Well-Being (Type E Measures)- Best Week, Worst Week, Short-Term Changes (Measures of Types B and F)- Own Well-Being Relative to That of Others (Type D Measures)- More Specific Evaluations of Life-as-a-Whole (Type C Measures)- Satisfaction- Happiness- Positive and Negative Affect- Affect Balance- Worries- Comments on Defenses, Adaptations, and Coping Mechanisms- Summary- 3: Future Applications- 11: Applications- Organization of the Chapter- Instrument Design- Parameters Affecting Instrument Design- Substantive Interests- Resources- Precision- Methods of Data Collection- Specific Proposals on Instrument Design- Concern-Level Measures- Global Measures- Response Scales- Analysis and Interpretation- Measure Construction and Analysis- Interpretation Perspectives- Summary- Appendixes- Appendix A: Interview and Questionnaire Schedules- Interview Used with May Respondents- Interview Used with November Form 1 Respondents- Interview Used with November Form 2 Respondents- Interview Used with April Respondents- Questionnaire Used with July Respondents- Appendix B: Sampling Designs, Response Rates, Sampling Precision- Appendix C: Clusters of Concern Items- Appendix D: Interrelationships Among Concern Items in May and April Surveys, by Population Subgroups- Appendix E: Factor Analyses of Concern Items from May, November, and April National Surveys- Appendix F: Factor Analysis of Global Measures from the April National Survey- Appendix G: Scan for Interactions Involving Concern Measures and Life 3- Appendix H: Demographic Characteristics of July Respondents- Appendix I: Distributions Produced by the Delighted-Terrible, Faces, and Circles Scales on Five Concerns- Appendix J: Number of Cases Used in Computing Means Shown in Exhibit 71- Appendix L: Formation of Socioeconomic Status Scale- Appendix M: Subgroup Ns and Percentage Distributions- Appendix N: Perceived Well-Being in 1974, 1976- References
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2,367 citations
TL;DR: It appears that positive and negative affect are independent in terms of how much people feel in their lives over longer time periods, but researchers need to focus on the processes that underlie both positive andnegative affect and that are responsible for producing their relative independence.
Abstract: Five studies on the relation between positive and negative affect are reported. In Studies 1 and 2 we found that positive feelings were remembered as being nearly independent of negative feelings in the past year, but the two types of affect were moderately negatively correlated for the past month. In Studies 3 and 5, subjects completed daily mood reports for 70 and 30 days, respectively. In Study 4, subjects completed three-week, daily, and moment mood reports and also filled out reports when they experienced strong emotions. The principal finding was that the relation between positive and negative affect differed greatly depending on the time frame. The strongest negative correlation between the two affects occurred during emotional times. The correlation decreased in a linear fashion as the time span covered increased logarithmically. It appears that positive and negative affect are independent in terms of how much people feel in their lives over longer time periods. Researchers need to focus on the processes that underlie both positive and negative affect and that are responsible for producing their relative independence.
2,210 citations