Hierarchical control of droop-controlled DC and AC microgrids — a general approach towards standardization
01 Nov 2009-Vol. 58, Iss: 1, pp 158-172
TL;DR: The hierarchical control derived from ISA-95 and electrical dispatching standards to endow smartness and flexibility to MGs is presented and results are provided to show the feasibility of the proposed approach.
Abstract: DC and AC Microgrids are key elements to integrate renewable and distributed energy resources as well as distributed energy storage systems. In the last years, efforts toward the standardization of these Microgrids have been made. In this sense, this paper present the hierarchical control derived from ISA-95 and electrical dispatching standards to endow smartness and flexibility to microgrids. The hierarchical control proposed consist of three levels: i) the primary control is based on the droop method, including an output impedance virtual loop; ii) the secondary control allows restoring the deviations produced by the primary control; and iii) the tertiary control manage the power flow between the microgrid and the external electrical distribution system. Results from a hierarchical-controlled microgrid are provided to show the feasibility of the proposed approach.
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TL;DR: In this paper, a detailed analysis of the main operation modes and control structures for power converters belonging to micro-grids is carried out, focusing mainly on grid-forming, grid-feeding, and grid-supporting configurations.
Abstract: The enabling of ac microgrids in distribution networks allows delivering distributed power and providing grid support services during regular operation of the grid, as well as powering isolated islands in case of faults and contingencies, thus increasing the performance and reliability of the electrical system. The high penetration of distributed generators, linked to the grid through highly controllable power processors based on power electronics, together with the incorporation of electrical energy storage systems, communication technologies, and controllable loads, opens new horizons to the effective expansion of microgrid applications integrated into electrical power systems. This paper carries out an overview about microgrid structures and control techniques at different hierarchical levels. At the power converter level, a detailed analysis of the main operation modes and control structures for power converters belonging to microgrids is carried out, focusing mainly on grid-forming, grid-feeding, and grid-supporting configurations. This analysis is extended as well toward the hierarchical control scheme of microgrids, which, based on the primary, secondary, and tertiary control layer division, is devoted to minimize the operation cost, coordinating support services, meanwhile maximizing the reliability and the controllability of microgrids. Finally, the main grid services that microgrids can offer to the main network, as well as the future trends in the development of their operation and control for the next future, are presented and discussed.
2,621 citations
Cites background from "Hierarchical control of droop-contr..."
...controlling the voltage and frequency of the ac waveforms provided to the microgrid in stand-alone mode [59], [60] and gridsupporting inverters will contribute to guarantee a proper voltage profile along the microgrid extension....
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...Microgrid power converters can competently participate in regulating the grid voltage profile, mainly in LV grids, by means of controlling the active and reactive power delivery through droop control algorithms [47], [60], [70]....
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TL;DR: The major issues and challenges in microgrid control are discussed, and a review of state-of-the-art control strategies and trends is presented; a general overview of the main control principles (e.g., droop control, model predictive control, multi-agent systems).
Abstract: The increasing interest in integrating intermittent renewable energy sources into microgrids presents major challenges from the viewpoints of reliable operation and control. In this paper, the major issues and challenges in microgrid control are discussed, and a review of state-of-the-art control strategies and trends is presented; a general overview of the main control principles (e.g., droop control, model predictive control, multi-agent systems) is also included. The paper classifies microgrid control strategies into three levels: primary, secondary, and tertiary, where primary and secondary levels are associated with the operation of the microgrid itself, and tertiary level pertains to the coordinated operation of the microgrid and the host grid. Each control level is discussed in detail in view of the relevant existing technical literature.
2,358 citations
Cites background from "Hierarchical control of droop-contr..."
...A hierarchical control scheme is proposed in [50] to improve the flexibility and expansibility of droop-based microgrids....
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...gent performance requirements [50]–[53]....
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...However, the conventional droop control method has several disadvantages [50], [78], [80], [81]: • Poor transient performance or instability issues due to the use of average values of active and reactive power over a cycle....
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TL;DR: Decentralized, distributed, and hierarchical control of grid-connected and islanded microgrids that mimic the behavior of the mains grid is reviewed.
Abstract: This paper presents a review of advanced control techniques for microgrids. This paper covers decentralized, distributed, and hierarchical control of grid-connected and islanded microgrids. At first, decentralized control techniques for microgrids are reviewed. Then, the recent developments in the stability analysis of decentralized controlled microgrids are discussed. Finally, hierarchical control for microgrids that mimic the behavior of the mains grid is reviewed.
1,702 citations
Cites background from "Hierarchical control of droop-contr..."
...This three-level hierarchical control is organized as follows [33]....
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TL;DR: This paper reviews the status of hierarchical control strategies applied to microgrids and discusses the future trends.
Abstract: Advanced control strategies are vital components for realization of microgrids. This paper reviews the status of hierarchical control strategies applied to microgrids and discusses the future trends. This hierarchical control structure consists of primary, secondary, and tertiary levels, and is a versatile tool in managing stationary and dynamic performance of microgrids while incorporating economical aspects. Various control approaches are compared and their respective advantages are highlighted. In addition, the coordination among different control hierarchies is discussed.
1,234 citations
Cites background from "Hierarchical control of droop-contr..."
...Thus, (3) is not valid for microgrid applications [12], [45]....
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...Block diagram of the secondary and tertiary controls [12]....
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...Then, the error signals are processed by individual controllers as in (52); the resulting signals ( and ) are sent to the primary controller of the DER to compensate for the frequency and voltage deviations [12]...
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...facilitates an economically optimal operation [12], [13]....
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...where , and are the controllers parameters [12]....
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TL;DR: In this paper, a review of control strategies, stability analysis, and stabilization techniques for dc microgrids is presented, where overall control is systematically classified into local and coordinated control levels according to respective functionalities in each level.
Abstract: This paper presents a review of control strategies, stability analysis, and stabilization techniques for dc microgrids (MGs). Overall control is systematically classified into local and coordinated control levels according to respective functionalities in each level. As opposed to local control, which relies only on local measurements, some line of communication between units needs to be made available in order to achieve the coordinated control. Depending on the communication method, three basic coordinated control strategies can be distinguished, i.e., decentralized, centralized, and distributed control. Decentralized control can be regarded as an extension of the local control since it is also based exclusively on local measurements. In contrast, centralized and distributed control strategies rely on digital communication technologies. A number of approaches using these three coordinated control strategies to achieve various control objectives are reviewed in this paper. Moreover, properties of dc MG dynamics and stability are discussed. This paper illustrates that tightly regulated point-of-load converters tend to reduce the stability margins of the system since they introduce negative impedances, which can potentially oscillate with lightly damped power supply input filters. It is also demonstrated that how the stability of the whole system is defined by the relationship of the source and load impedances, referred to as the minor loop gain. Several prominent specifications for the minor loop gain are reviewed. Finally, a number of active stabilization techniques are presented.
1,131 citations
Cites background or methods from "Hierarchical control of droop-contr..."
...either output power or output current can be selected as the feedback signal in droop control [3], [29]....
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...1) Decentralized control: DCLs do not exist and power lines are used as the only channel of communication....
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...MGs can operate autonomously or be grid-connected, and depending on the type of voltage in the point of common coupling (PCC), ac, and dc MGs can be distinguished [3]....
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...Some of the functionalities that can be accomplished by using DCLs include secondary/tertiary control, real-time optimization, unit commitment, and internal operating mode changing (see Fig....
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...the conventional approach uses a centralized controller which collects information from all units via low-bandwidth DCLs [3], a very active field of research is focused on resolution of these problems via distributed control1 [22], [23]....
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TL;DR: In this paper, an adaptive control system for a dc microgrid for data centers is proposed, which coordinates the control of converters, sources and switches used in the DC microgrid.
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371 citations
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TL;DR: In this article, an autonomous control method for a DC microgrid system having distribution power generators is described, which brings high reliability, high-flexibility and maintenance-free operation to the system.
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329 citations
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316 citations
"Hierarchical control of droop-contr..." refers background in this paper
...In addition, the inherent tradeoff of this method between frequency and amplitude regulation in front of active- and reactive-power sharing accuracy cannot be avoided in islanded mode [14]–[19]....
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a control technique for distributed generation (DG) plants that use feedback of only locally measurable variables, which allows correct system operation and switching between parallel and isolated modes without needing online communication of control signals between the generators.
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310 citations
"Hierarchical control of droop-contr..." refers background in this paper
...AC microgrids are now in the cutting edge of the state of the art [20]-[25]....
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TL;DR: In this paper, a model of a parallel multi-inverter system with instantaneous average current sharing is presented, where a disturbance source is introduced to represent all the sources that may cause current unbalances.
Abstract: Parallel multi-inverter systems can be designed to have the advantages of expandable output power, improved reliability, and easy N+X redundancy operation. However, a current-sharing control scheme has to be employed to enable the inverters to share the load current equally. A multi-inverter system with instantaneous average-current-sharing scheme is presented in this paper. By introducing a disturbance source to represent all the sources that may cause current unbalances, a model of the system can be built. Some key issues are discussed based on the model, including stability of the current-sharing controller, impedance characteristics and voltage regulation. Three experimental 110 VAC/1.1 kVA inverters are built and paralleled to verify the theoretical predictions.
257 citations