High-Efficiency Millimeter-Wave Single-Ended and Differential Fundamental Oscillators in CMOS
TL;DR: An approach to designing compact high-efficiency millimeter-wave fundamental oscillators operating above the nonlinearity of the active device and the finite quality factor of the passive devices to provide an accurate and optimal oscillator design in terms of the output power and efficiency is reported.
Abstract: This paper reports an approach to designing compact high-efficiency millimeter-wave fundamental oscillators operating above the $f_{\text {max}}/2$ of the active device. The approach takes full consideration of the nonlinearity of the active device and the finite quality factor of the passive devices to provide an accurate and optimal oscillator design in terms of the output power and efficiency. The 213-GHz single-ended and differential fundamental oscillators in 65-nm CMOS technology are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method. Using a compact capacitive transformer design, the single-ended oscillator achieves 0.79-mW output power per transistor (16 $\mu \text{m}$ ) at 1-V supply and a peak dc-to-RF efficiency of 8.02% ( $V_{\mathrm{ DD}}=0.80$ V) within a core area of 0.0101 mm2, and a measured phase noise of −93.4 dBc/Hz at 1-MHz offset. The differential oscillator exhibits approximately the same performance. A 213-GHz fundamental voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) with a bulk tuning method is also demonstrated in this paper. The measured peak efficiency of the VCO is 6.02% with a tuning range of 2.3% at 0.6-V supply.
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01 Apr 2019
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a 310 GHz fundamental oscillator with a differential T-embedding network, where an on-chip transformer acts part of an embedding component and produces a single-ended output.
Abstract: This paper presents a 310-GHz fundamental oscillator with a differential T-embedding network. An on-chip transformer acts part of an embedding component and produces a single-ended output. The design is implemented in 65-nm CMOS process, occupying a core area of 0.01 μm2. The oscillator generates 0.4-mW output power from two 16-μm transistor while drawing 10.39-mA current from a 1.2-V power supply, corresponding to a 3.2% dc-to-RF efficiency. To the best of the author’s knowledge, this oscillator provides the highest fundamental frequency in CMOS with high output power and dc-to-RF efficiency.
8 citations
7 citations
TL;DR: A compact and 1-D scalable oscillator–radiator topology that works on the third harmonic is proposed to increase the frequency and power of the source.
Abstract: A 670-GHz terahertz source array is implemented in 40-nm bulk CMOS technology. To increase the frequency and power of the source, a compact and 1-D scalable oscillator–radiator topology that works on the third harmonic is proposed. In order to avoid the gate transistor node from loading the tank at the output frequency, a filtering feedback network is used to feed through the fundamental signal while filtering the third harmonic. The source consists of $4\times 2$ oscillator cells with different common- and differential-mode coupling mechanisms that are built into the slotline resonant tanks. These slotlines build up an $E$ -field pattern that radiates the signal to the far-field. The chip is assembled on a hyperhemispherical lens that suppresses substrate modes and further increases the directivity of the source. The full array and pads have a die size of $0.75\times 1$ .15 mm2. The source can be tuned in the range of 660.8–676.6 GHz. It has a maximum measured EIRP of 7.4 dBm and −16.1 dBm radiated output power while consuming only 99.7 mW. The source also has a measured phase noise at 1- and 10-MHz offsets of −69 and −93 dBc/Hz, respectively.
6 citations
TL;DR: In this paper , a 2D scalable architecture of coupled harmonic oscillator array for high-power radiation beyond 600 GHz was proposed, which achieved an effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) of 27.3 dBm and an output power of − 3 dBm with 754mW power consumption under 1.2-V supply voltage, implying a dc-to-terahertz (THz) efficiency of 0.066%.
Abstract: A novel and compact 2-D scalable architecture of coupled harmonic oscillator array is proposed for high-power radiation beyond 600 GHz. The compact and symmetric scalable unit cell comprises two oscillators with two slot antennas radiating the third-harmonic power. Each unit cell is horizontally coupled out-of-phase and vertically in-phase with adjacent cells at the fundamental frequency. Therefore, coherent radiation and power combining are achieved at the third harmonic. A $4\times4$ array prototype (32 radiating elements) is designed and fabricated in a 65-nm CMOS technology. An elliptical Teflon lens is attached at the backside of the chip for a highly directive beam. An effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) of 27.3 dBm and an output power of −3 dBm are measured at 694-GHz with 754-mW power consumption under 1.2-V supply voltage, implying a dc-to-terahertz (THz) efficiency of 0.066%. The core design occupies a chip area of 0.61 mm2, and the entire chip area is 0.97 mm2, leading to a 0.52-mW/mm2 area efficiency. The peak EIRP of 27.8 dBm and the radiated power of −2.4 dBm are measured at 699 GHz under 1.3-V supply voltage. A frequency tuning range of 5.26% from 679.4 to 716.1 GHz is measured by varying bias and supply voltages. The measured phase noise at 1-MHz offset is −73 dBc/Hz at 694 GHz. To the best of our knowledge, the designed array has the highest radiated power, radiated power per area, EIRP, frequency tuning range, and dc-to-THz efficiency among silicon-based scalable coherent radiator arrays operating beyond 600 GHz.
5 citations
TL;DR: In this paper , the polyharmonic distortion (PHD) method is used to find the optimum conditions for efficient second-harmonic signal generation in millimeter-wave (mm-wave) harmonic oscillators that also maximize their DC-to-RF efficiency.
Abstract: Based on the polyharmonic distortion (PHD) method, we present an approach to find the optimum conditions for efficient second-harmonic signal generation in millimeter-wave (mm-wave) harmonic oscillators that also maximize their DC-to-RF efficiency. These conditions include magnitude and phase of voltages at the gate and drain of the core transistors at both fundamental and second-harmonic signal components as well as the DC bias point to generate the maximum achievable second-harmonic power. We also establish that the steady-state oscillation at the fundamental frequency is a crucial criterion to obtain such conditions. The maximum achievable power and efficiency obtained from the proposed approach are independent of the harmonic oscillator topology and hence can be regarded as a reference for comparing different design techniques and structures. According to the proposed design procedure, the optimum conditions for an nMOS transistor acting as the active core of a 200-GHz harmonic oscillator are found and a second-order harmonic oscillator topology that can fulfill the optimum conditions is proposed. The oscillator is designed and fabricated in a 65-nm CMOS process and achieves peak DC-to-RF efficiency of 6.05%. The peak output power at 1.2-V supply is 2.9 dBm at 203 GHz.
4 citations
References
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TL;DR: A snapshot of particle swarming from the authors’ perspective, including variations in the algorithm, current and ongoing research, applications and open problems, is included.
Abstract: A concept for the optimization of nonlinear functions using particle swarm methodology is introduced The evolution of several paradigms is outlined, and an implementation of one of the paradigms is discussed Benchmark testing of the paradigm is described, and applications, including nonlinear function optimization and neural network training, are proposed The relationships between particle swarm optimization and both artificial life and genetic algorithms are described
18,439 citations
01 Apr 2007
TL;DR: A standard algorithm is defined here which is designed to be a straightforward extension of the original algorithm while taking into account more recent developments that can be expected to improve performance on standard measures.
Abstract: Particle swarm optimization has become a common heuristic technique in the optimization community, with many researchers exploring the concepts, issues, and applications of the algorithm. In spite of this attention, there has as yet been no standard definition representing exactly what is involved in modern implementations of the technique. A standard is defined here which is designed to be a straightforward extension of the original algorithm while taking into account more recent developments that can be expected to improve performance on standard measures. This standard algorithm is intended for use both as a baseline for performance testing of improvements to the technique, as well as to represent PSO to the wider optimization community
1,269 citations
TL;DR: A systematic approach to designing high frequency and high power oscillators using activity condition is introduced, and a novel triple-push structure is introduced to realize 256 GHz and 482 GHz oscillators.
Abstract: A systematic approach to designing high frequency and high power oscillators using activity condition is introduced. This method finds the best topology to achieve frequencies close to the fmax of the transistors. It also determines the maximum frequency of oscillation for a fixed circuit topology, considering the quality factor of the passive components. Using this technique, in a 0.13 μm CMOS process, we design and implement 121 GHz and 104 GHz fundamental oscillators with the output power of -3.5 dBm and -2.7 dBm, respectively. Next, we introduce a novel triple-push structure to realize 256 GHz and 482 GHz oscillators. The 256 GHz oscillator was implemented in a 0.13 μm CMOS process and the output power of -17 dBm was measured. The 482 GHz oscillator generates -7.9 dBm (0.16 mW) in a 65 nm CMOS process.
347 citations
"High-Efficiency Millimeter-Wave Sin..." refers background in this paper
...first introduced in [22] and [23] and developed in several subsequent works [12], [13], [24]–[28]....
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...recently to design high-efficiency mmW oscillators [12], [13], [15], [29]....
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TL;DR: Sub-millimeter and terahertz spectral range applications have been extensively studied in the literature as discussed by the authors, with many of them reaching sub-20 GHz from the microwave side for the first time.
Abstract: Terahertz technology has been driven largely by applications in astronomy and space science. For more than three decades cosmochemists, molecular spectroscopists, astrophysicists, and Earth and planetary scientists have used submillimeter-wave or terahertz sensors to identify, catalog and map lightweight gases, atoms and molecules in Earth and planetary atmospheres, in regions of interstellar dust and star formation, and in new and old galaxies, back to the earliest days of the universe, from both ground based and more recently, orbital platforms. The past ten years have witnessed the launch and successful deployment of three satellite instruments with spectral line heterodyne receivers above 300 GHz (SWAS, Odin, and MIRO) and a fourth platform, Aura MLS, that reaches to 2520 GHz, crossing the terahertz threshold from the microwave side for the first time. The former Soviet Union launched the first bolometric detectors for the submillimeter way back in 1974 and operated the first space based submillimeter wave telescope on the Salyut 6 station for four months in 1978. In addition, continuum, Fourier transform and spectrophotometer instruments on IRAS, ISO, COBE, the recent Spitzer Space Telescope and Japan's Akari satellite have all encroached into the submillimeter from the infrared using direct detection bolometers or photoconductors. At least two more major satellites carrying submillimeter wave instruments are nearing completion, Herschel and Planck, and many more are on the drawing boards in international and national space organizations such as NASA, ESA, DLR, CNES, and JAXA. This paper reviews some of the programs that have been proposed, completed and are still envisioned for space applications in the submillimeter and terahertz spectral range.
260 citations
"High-Efficiency Millimeter-Wave Sin..." refers background in this paper
...In addition, these bands encompass the rotational and vibrational frequencies of many molecules and hold great potential in realizing spectroscopy systems [5], [6]....
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TL;DR: This paper presents a 210-GHz transceiver with OOK modulation in a 32-nm SOI CMOS process (fT/fmax= 250/320 GHz) and is the first demonstration of a fundamental frequency CMOS transceiver at the 200-GHz frequency range.
Abstract: This paper presents a 210-GHz transceiver with OOK modulation in a 32-nm SOI CMOS process (fT/fmax= 250/320 GHz). The transmitter (TX) employs a 2 × 2 spatial combining array consisting of a double-stacked cross-coupled voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) at 210 GHz with an on-off-keying (OOK) modulator, a power amplifier (PA) driver, a novel balun-based differential power distribution network, four PAs, and an on-chip 2 × 2 dipole antenna array. The noncoherent receiver (RX) utilizes a direct detection architecture consisting of an on-chip antenna, a low-noise amplifier (LNA), and a power detector. The VCO generates measured -13.5-dBm output power, and the PA shows a measured 15-dB gain and 4.6-dBm Psat. The LNA exhibits a measured in-band gain of 18 dB and minimum in-band noise figure (NF) of 11 dB. The TX achieves an EIRP of 5.13 dBm at 10 dB back-off from saturated power. It achieves an estimated EIRP of 15.2 dBm when the PAs are fully driven. This is the first demonstration of a fundamental frequency CMOS transceiver at the 200-GHz frequency range.
222 citations