High-performance heat sinking for VLSI
TL;DR: In this paper, a water-cooled integral heat sink for silicon integrated circuits has been designed and tested at a power density of 790 W/cm2, with a maximum substrate temperature rise of 71°C above the input water temperature.
Abstract: The problem of achieving compact, high-performance forced liquid cooling of planar integrated circuits has been investigated. The convective heat-transfer coefficient h between the substrate and the coolant was found to be the primary impediment to achieving low thermal resistance. For laminar flow in confined channels, h scales inversely with channel width, making microscopic channels desirable. The coolant viscosity determines the minimum practical channel width. The use of high-aspect ratio channels to increase surface area will, to an extent, further reduce thermal resistance. Based on these considerations, a new, very compact, water-cooled integral heat sink for silicon integrated circuits has been designed and tested. At a power density of 790 W/cm2, a maximum substrate temperature rise of 71°C above the input water temperature was measured, in good agreement with theory. By allowing such high power densities, the heat sink may greatly enhance the feasibility of ultrahigh-speed VLSI circuits.
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01 May 1982
TL;DR: This review describes the advantages of employing silicon as a mechanical material, the relevant mechanical characteristics of silicon, and the processing techniques which are specific to micromechanical structures.
Abstract: Single-crystal silicon is being increasingly employed in a variety of new commercial products not because of its well-established electronic properties, but rather because of its excellent mechanical properties. In addition, recent trends in the engineering literature indicate a growing interest in the use of silicon as a mechanical material with the ultimate goal of developing a broad range of inexpensive, batch-fabricated, high-performance sensors and transducers which are easily interfaced with the rapidly proliferating microprocessor. This review describes the advantages of employing silicon as a mechanical material, the relevant mechanical characteristics of silicon, and the processing techniques which are specific to micromechanical structures. Finally, the potentials of this new technology are illustrated by numerous detailed examples from the literature. It is clear that silicon will continue to be aggressively exploited in a wide variety of mechanical applications complementary to its traditional role as an electronic material. Furthermore, these multidisciplinary uses of silicon will significantly alter the way we think about all types of miniature mechanical devices and components.
2,723 citations
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this article, the advantages of employing silicon as a mechanical material, the relevant mechanical characteristics of silicon, and the processing techniques which are specific to micromechanical structures are discussed.
Abstract: Single-crystal silicon is being increasingly employed in a variety of new commercial products not because of its well-established electronic properties, but rather because of its excellent mechanical properties. In addition, recent trends in the engineering literature indicate a growing interest in the use of silicon as a mechanical material with the ultimate goal of developing a broad range of inexpensive, batch-fabricated, high-performance sensors and transducers which are easily interfaced with the rapidly proliferating microprocessor. This review describes the advantages of employing silicon as a mechanical material, the relevant mechanical characteristics of silicon, and the processing techniques which are specific to micromechanical structures. Finally, the potentials of this new technology are illustrated by numerous detailed examples from the literature. It is clear that silicon will continue to be aggressively exploited in a wide variety of mechanical applications complementary to its traditional role as an electronic material. Furthermore, these multidisciplinary uses of silicon will significantly alter the way we think about all types of miniature mechanical devices and components.
2,707 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors survey progress over the past 25 years in the development of microscale devices for pumping fluids and attempt to provide both a reference for micropump researchers and a resource for those outside the field who wish to identify the best micropumps for a particular application.
Abstract: We survey progress over the past 25 years in the development of microscale devices for pumping fluids. We attempt to provide both a reference for micropump researchers and a resource for those outside the field who wish to identify the best micropump for a particular application. Reciprocating displacement micropumps have been the subject of extensive research in both academia and the private sector and have been produced with a wide range of actuators, valve configurations and materials. Aperiodic displacement micropumps based on mechanisms such as localized phase change have been shown to be suitable for specialized applications. Electroosmotic micropumps exhibit favorable scaling and are promising for a variety of applications requiring high flow rates and pressures. Dynamic micropumps based on electrohydrodynamic and magnetohydrodynamic effects have also been developed. Much progress has been made, but with micropumps suitable for important applications still not available, this remains a fertile area for future research.
1,913 citations
Cites background from "High-performance heat sinking for V..."
...For instance, Tuckerman and Pease’s seminal paper on liquid-phase chip cooling contemplated flow rates of several hundred milliliters per minute [7]....
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IBM1
TL;DR: The end result is that there is no single end point for scaling, but that instead there are many end points, each optimally adapted to its particular applications.
Abstract: This paper presents the current state of understanding of the factors that limit the continued scaling of Si complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology and provides an analysis of the ways in which application-related considerations enter into the determination of these limits. The physical origins of these limits are primarily in the tunneling currents, which leak through the various barriers in a MOS field-effect transistor (MOSFET) when it becomes very small, and in the thermally generated subthreshold currents. The dependence of these leakages on MOSFET geometry and structure is discussed along with design criteria for minimizing short-channel effects and other issues related to scaling. Scaling limits due to these leakage currents arise from application constraints related to power consumption and circuit functionality. We describe how these constraints work out for some of the most important application classes: dynamic random access memory (DRAM), static random access memory (SRAM), low-power portable devices, and moderate and high-performance CMOS logic. As a summary, we provide a table of our estimates of the scaling limits for various applications and device types. The end result is that there is no single end point for scaling, but that instead there are many end points, each optimally adapted to its particular applications.
1,417 citations
Cites background from "High-performance heat sinking for V..."
...It was demonstrated in 1981 that nearly 1 KW/cm could be removed from a Si wafer [80] by forcing liquid coolant through channels etched into the back of a Si...
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors review the status of the understanding of fluid flow phenomena particular to microdevices and emphasize the use of MEMS as sensors and actuators for flow diagnosis and control.
Abstract: Manufacturing processes that can create extremely small machines have been developed in recent years. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) refer to devices that have characteristic length of less than 1 mm but more than 1 micron, that combine electrical and mechanical components and that are fabricated using integrated circuit batch-processing techniques. Electrostatic, magnetic, pneumatic and thermal actuators, motors, valves, gears, and tweezers of less than 100-μm size have been fabricated. These have been used as sensors for pressure, temperature, mass flow, velocity and sound, as actuators for linear and angular motion and as simple components for complex systems such as micro-heat-engines and micro-heat-pumps The technology is progressing at a rate that fa r exceeds that of our understanding of the unconventional physics involved in the operation as well as the manufacturing of those minute devices. The primary objective of this article is to critically review the status of our understanding of fluid flow phenomena particular to microdevices. In terms of applications, the paper emphasizes the use of MEMS as sensors and actuators for flow diagnosis and control.
1,197 citations
References
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01 Jan 1966TL;DR: In this article, the echangeurs de : chaleur, couche de : limite, modeles de : turbulence, transfert de masse reference record created on 2005-11-18, modified on 2016-08-08
Abstract: Keywords: echangeurs de : chaleur ; couche : limite ; modeles de : turbulence ; transfert de masse Reference Record created on 2005-11-18, modified on 2016-08-08
4,465 citations
TL;DR: Anisotropic etching of silicon has become an important technology in silicon semiconductor processing during the past ten years and it will continue to gain stature and acceptance as standard processing technology in the next few years as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Anisotropic etching of silicon has become an important technology in silicon semiconductor processing during the past ten years. It will continue to gain stature and acceptance as standard processing technology in the next few years. Anisotropic etching of
898 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a new process is described which permits the sealing of metals to glass and other insulators at temperatures well below the softening point of the glass, by applying a dc voltage in excess of a few hundred volts between the glass and the metal in such a way that the former is at a negative potential with respect to the latter.
Abstract: A new process is described which permits the sealing of metals to glass and other insulators at temperatures well below the softening point of the glass. Sealing is accomplished in about 1 min by applying a dc voltage in excess of a few hundred volts between the glass and the metal in such a way that the former is at a negative potential with respect to the latter. The process has been applied to a number of glass‐metal combinations. A discussion is presented of some of the mechanisms which are believed to play a role in the bonding process.
800 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the electrical conductance, density, viscosity, and surface tension of fluoride mixtures have been systematically collected and evaluated for 44 binary mixtures over a range of compositions and temperatures.
Abstract: Data on the electrical conductance, density, viscosity, and surface tension of fluoride mixtures have been systematically collected and evaluated. Results are given for 44 binary mixtures over a range of compositions and temperatures. Values of the above properties for the single salts have been updated in accord with previously advanced recommendations.
343 citations
IBM1
TL;DR: In this paper, the implications of the laws of quantum mechanics and thermodynamics for information storage are examined and the need for power dissipation in electrical information processing is demonstrated and the limits set on miniaturization by the problems of removing the heat thereby produced.
Abstract: Miniaturization has steadily increased the economic usefulness of digital electronics through the past two decades. A variety of physical arguments are brought to bear on the question of how far miniaturization can be extended. The implications of the laws of quantum mechanics and thermodynamics for information storage are examined. The need for power dissipation in electrical information processing is demonstrated and the limits set on miniaturization by the problems of removing the heat thereby produced are estimated. limits with origins in properties of the materials used to make electronic devices are reviewed. The potential performance of various technologies based on nonsemiconductor phenomena is estimated and compared with the limits found for planar silicon technology. Attempts are made to guess at all of the many unknown parameters that enter into broadly applicable quantitative expressions of the properties of logic circuitry so that actual values of the limits can be estimated.
289 citations