How Languages Are Learned
About: This article is published in TESOL Quarterly.The article was published on 1995-03-01. It has received 3115 citations till now.
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TL;DR: This article reviewed a selection of research from the field of foreign and second language teaching into what is referred to here as teacher cognition, what teachers think, know, and believe and the relationships of these mental constructs to what teachers do in the language teaching classroom.
Abstract: This paper reviews a selection of research from the field of foreign and second language teaching into what is referred to here as teacher cognition – what teachers think, know, and believe and the relationships of these mental constructs to what teachers do in the language teaching classroom. Within a framework suggested by more general mainstream educational research on teacher cognition, language teacher cognition is here discussed with reference to three main themes: (1) cognition and prior language learning experience, (2) cognition and teacher education, and (3) cognition and classroom practice. In addition, the findings of studies into two specific curricular areas in language teaching which have been examined by teacher cognition – grammar teaching and literacy – are discussed. This review indicates that, while the study of teacher cognition has established itself on the research agenda in the field of language teaching and provided valuable insight into the mental lives of language teachers, a clear sense of unity is lacking in the work and there are several major issues in language teaching which have yet to be explored from the perspective of teacher cognition.
2,022 citations
Journal Article•
1,510 citations
TL;DR: The study investigated whether the type of feedback given to 53 adult migrant students on three types of error resulted in improved accuracy in new pieces of writing over a 12 week period and found a significant effect for the combination of written and conference feedback on accuracy levels in the use of the past simple tense and the definite article.
898 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors call for more research to enhance our knowledge of the nature of foreign accents and their effects on communication, and recommend greater collaboration between researchers and practitioners, such that more classroomrelevant research is undertaken.
Abstract: Empirical studies are essential to improving our understanding of the relationship between accent and pronunciation teaching. However, the study of pronunciation has been marginalized within the field of applied linguistics. As a result, teachers are often left to rely on their own intuitions with little direction. Although some instructors can successfully assist their students under these conditions, many others are reluctant to teach pronunciation. In this article we call for more research to enhance our knowledge of the nature of foreign accents and their effects on communication. Research of this type has much to offer to teachers and students in terms of helping them to set learning goals, identifying appropriate pedagogical priorities for the classroom, and determining the most effective approaches to teaching. We discuss these possibilities within a framework in which mutual intelligibility is the primary consideration, although social ramifications of accent must also be taken into account. We describe several problem areas and identify some misconceptions about pronunciation instruction. In addition, we make suggestions for future research that would address intelligibility, functional load, computer-assisted language learning, and the role of the listener. Finally, we recommend greater collaboration between researchers and practitioners, such that more classroomrelevant research is undertaken.
791 citations
Book•
19 Dec 2005TL;DR: 1. introducing second language acquisition and 2. acquiring knowledge for L2 use and 3. L2 learning and teaching.
Abstract: Providing a solid foundation in second language acquisition, this book has become the leading introduction to the subject for students of linguistics, psychology and education, and trainee language teachers. Now in its third edition, the textbook offers comprehensive coverage of fundamental concepts, including second language acquisition (SLA) in adults and children, in formal and informal learning contexts, and in diverse socio-cultural settings, and takes an interdisciplinary approach, encouraging students to consider SLA from linguistic, psychological and social perspectives. Each chapter contains a list of key terms, a summary, and a range of graded exercises suitable for self-testing and class discussion. The third edition has been revised throughout, and features new material on the practical aspects of teaching language, along with updated online resources, including new classroom activities to accompany each chapter, as well as updated references and further reading suggestions.
774 citations
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Book•
01 Jan 2014
TL;DR: Second language acquisition research has been extensively studied in the literature as discussed by the authors, with a focus on second language acquisition in the context of English as a Second Language Learning (ESL) programs.
Abstract: Acknowledgements Introduction PART ONE - BACKGROUND Introduction 1. Second language acquisition research: an overview PART TWO - THE DESCRIPTION OF LEARNER LANGUAGE Introduction 2. Learner errors and error analysis 3. Developmental patterns: order and sequence in second language acquisition 4. Variability in learner language 5. Pragmatic aspects of learner language PART THREE - EXPLAINING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: EXTERNAL FACTORS Introduction 6. Social factors and second language acquisition 7. Input and interaction and second language acquisition PART FOUR - EXPLAINING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: INTERNAL FACTORS Introduction 8. Language transfer 9. Cognitive accounts of second language acquisition 10. Linguistic universals and second language acquisition PART FIVE - EXPLAINING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Introduction 11. Individual learner differences 12. Learning strategies PART SIX - CLASSROOM SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Introduction 13. Classroom interaction and second language acquisition 14. Formal instruction and second language acquisition PART SEVEN - CONCLUSION Introduction 15. Data, theory, and applications in second language acquisition research Glossary Bibliography Author index Subject index
6,364 citations
5,691 citations
4,327 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1990
TL;DR: The authors provided a synthesis of empirical findings on second and foreign language learning by children and adults, emphasising the design and execution of appropriate research, and emphasising that second languages are vitally important to diverse groups of people, ranging from refugees to college students facing foreign language requirements.
Abstract: Understanding how people learn and fail to learn second and foreign languages is increasingly recognised as a critical social and psycholinguistic issue. Second languages are vitally important to diverse groups of people, ranging from refugees to college students facing foreign language requirements. This book provides a synthesis of empirical findings on second and foreign language learning by children and adults, emphasising the design and execution of appropriate research.
2,025 citations