Immunity and vaccine development in the bovine theilerioses
TL;DR: Analysis of the cytotoxic T-cell response has revealed evidence of BoLA haplotype dominance plus competition between parasite epitopes, but further vaccine development will probably require identification of a range of other antigens, especially from the schizont stage.
Abstract: There are three economically important bovine Theileria species: Theileria annulata, which causes tropical theileriosis and occurs across north Africa and most of central Asia; Theileria parva, which causes East Coast fever and is found in East and Central Africa; and Theileria sergenti, which is predominantly a problem in Japan and Korea. Theileria annulata preferentially infects macrophages in vivo. It is controlled largely by means of live, attenuated vaccines, which are produced by prolonged tissue culture of the schizont-infected cells. The immunity induced in animals, which have either recovered from an infection or have been vaccinated (with an attenuated vaccine), is broad, solid and cell mediated. It is considered that the main effector cells are cytostatic macrophages that produce nitric oxide. Subsidiary roles for bovine leucocyte antigen (BoLA)-restricted, transiently appearing, cytotoxic T cells, and possibly also natural killer (NK) cells, have been identified. Cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) may have important roles, particularly in the induction of pathology. Matrix metalloproteinases have been implicated in the metastatic behaviour of schizont-infected cells. The nature of the protective schizont target antigens remains unknown. Attempts to develop a subunit vaccine have focused upon a sporozoite antigen (SPAG-1) and a merozoite antigen (Tams1). Both SPAG-1 and Tams1 have given partial protection using different delivery systems and adjuvants, but further vaccine development will probably require identification of a range of other antigens, especially from the schizont stage. Theileria parva has a tropism for T cells. Vaccination is currently by the 'infection and treatment' method, which involves challenging with a controlled dose of sporozoite stabilate and the simultaneous administration of long-acting tetracyclines. The immunity thus induced is mediated by BoLA-restricted cytotoxic T cells, which recognize polymorphic schizont antigens. These antigens have not been characterized at the molecular level. However, the polymorphic nature of the target antigens underlies the fact that the immunity is very strain specific--a situation that distinguishes T. parva from T. annulata. Interestingly, it is not possible to produce an attenuated vaccine to T. parva, as T. parva requires up to two orders of magnitude more schizonts in order to achieve transfer to the new host. A suggested reason for this is that the macrophage targets of T. annulata are phagocytes and thus the schizont has a natural, efficient route of entry whilst the preferred host of T. parva is the non-phagocytic T cell. Analysis of the cytotoxic T-cell response has revealed evidence of BoLA haplotype dominance plus competition between parasite epitopes. Subunit vaccination using a recombinant sporozoite antigen (p67) has proved very promising, with levels of protection of the order of 70% being achieved. A proportion of the protected calves exhibits complete sterile immunity. Interestingly, the basis for this immunity is not clear, since there is no correlation between the titre of antibodies that inhibit sporozoite penetration of lymphocytes and protection. Similarly, there is no significant T-cell response that distinguishes the protected and susceptible animals. These data are very encouraging, but other components, particularly those derived from the schizont, need to be identified and characterized. The mild Theileria species of Japan and Korea (termed T. sergenti in the literature) cause fever and severe chronic anaemia. The schizont stage of the life cycle is very rare and the host cell type is not known. The pathology is associated with chronic piroplasm infection. Immunity can be induced by immunizing with crude piroplasm extracts. Serological analysis of immune sera reveals that the immunodominant antigen is a polypeptide of 30-33 kDa, which corresponds to the protective T. annulata polypeptide Tams1. (ABSTRACT T
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TL;DR: Successful veterinary vaccines have been produced against viral, bacterial, protozoal, and multicellular pathogens, which in many ways have led the field in the application and adaptation of novel technologies.
Abstract: The major goals of veterinary vaccines are to improve the health and welfare of companion animals, increase production of livestock in a cost-effective manner, and prevent animal-to-human transmission from both domestic animals and wildlife. These diverse aims have led to different approaches to the development of veterinary vaccines from crude but effective whole-pathogen preparations to molecularly defined subunit vaccines, genetically engineered organisms or chimeras, vectored antigen formulations, and naked DNA injections. The final successful outcome of vaccine research and development is the generation of a product that will be available in the marketplace or that will be used in the field to achieve desired outcomes. As detailed in this review, successful veterinary vaccines have been produced against viral, bacterial, protozoal, and multicellular pathogens, which in many ways have led the field in the application and adaptation of novel technologies. These veterinary vaccines have had, and continue to have, a major impact not only on animal health and production but also on human health through increasing safe food supplies and preventing animal-to-human transmission of infectious diseases. The continued interaction between animals and human researchers and health professionals will be of major importance for adapting new technologies, providing animal models of disease, and confronting new and emerging infectious diseases.
444 citations
TL;DR: Key parameters in T. parva population dynamics are the relative importance of asymptomatic carrier cattle and animals undergoing severe disease, in transmission of the parasite to ticks, and the extent of transmission by nymphs as compared to adult ticks.
Abstract: Theileria are economically important, intra-cellular protozoa, transmitted by ixodid ticks, which infect wild and domestic ruminants. In the mammalian host, parasites infect leukocytes and erythrocytes. In the arthropod vector they develop in gut epithelial cells and salivary glands. All four intra-cellular stages of Theileria survive free in the cytoplasm. The schizont stages of certain Theileria species induce a unique, cancer-like, phenotype in infected host leukocytes. Theileria undergoes an obligate sexual cycle, involving fusion of gametes in the tick gut, to produce a transiently diploid zygote. The existence of sexual recombination in T. parva has been confirmed in the laboratory, and is presumed to contribute to the extensive polymorphism observed in field isolates. Key parameters in T. parva population dynamics are the relative importance of asymptomatic carrier cattle and animals undergoing severe disease, in transmission of the parasite to ticks, and the extent of transmission by nymphs as compared to adult ticks. Tick populations differ in vector competence for specific T. parva stocks. Recombinant forms of T. parva and T. annulata sporozoite surface antigens induce protection against parasite challenge in cattle. In future, vaccines might be improved by inclusion of tick peptides in multivalent vaccines.
223 citations
Cites background from "Immunity and vaccine development in..."
...…shares cross-reacting neutralizing determinants that inhibit invasion of leukocytes in an in vitro assay and it has been demonstrated that recombinant forms of these proteins exhibit a level of mutual cross-protection on heterologous challenge (Knight et al. 1996; reviewed by Boulter & Hall, 1999)....
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Book•
01 Jan 2006
TL;DR: The history of the Maasai moves, land alienation and resistance in colonial British East Africa in 1904, in order to make way for white settlers in what was to become Kenya as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The history of the Maasai moves, land alienation and resistance in colonial British East Africa In 1904, in order to make way for white settlers in what was to become Kenya, the Maasai were forcibly moved into two reserves, robbing them of the best part of their land in British East Africa Using unique oral testimony and archival evidence, this book tells the true story behind the making of the 'White Highlands', and the repercussions of these events to the present day
141 citations
TL;DR: Progress made on developing recombinant proteins of Eimeria, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, Neospora, Trypanosoma, Babesia, and Theileria are examined and attempts to use these antigens for vaccinating animals against the associated diseases are examined.
119 citations
TL;DR: The analyses reported here show that Sahiwal calves were also more resistant than European Bos taurus (Holstein) dairy breed calves to tick-borne tropical theileriosis (Theileria annulata infection).
109 citations
References
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Book•
01 Nov 1990
TL;DR: Vaccines and Vaccination in Historical Perspective, Myron M. Levine, Rosanna Lagos, and Jose' Esparza Developing Vaccines in the Era of Reverse Vaccinology, Rino Rappuoli, Gordon Dougan, and Isabel Delany Initial Clinical Evaluation of New Vaccine Candidates.
Abstract: Vaccines and Vaccination in Historical Perspective, Myron M. Levine, Rosanna Lagos, and Jose' Esparza Developing Vaccines in the Era of Reverse Vaccinology, Rino Rappuoli, Gordon Dougan, and Isabel Delany Initial Clinical Evaluation of New Vaccine Candidates, Carol O. Tacket and Karen L. Kotloff Special Issues in Performing Vaccine Trials in Developing Countries, Milagritos D. Tapia, Karen L. Kotloff, Christopher V. Plowe, and Samba O. Sow Long-Term Evaluation of Vaccine Performance: Methodological, Issues for Phase III and Phase IV Studies, John D. Clemens, Abdollah Naficy, Malla R. Rao, and Hye-won Koo Ethical Considerations in the Conduct of Vaccine Trials in Developing Countries , Charles Weijer, Claudio F. Lanata, and Christopher V. Plowe Vaccine Economics: Assuring That Vaccines Are Developed for and Available in Developing Countries, Amie Batson and Piers Whitehead Development and Supply of Vaccines: An Industry Perspective, Michel Gre'co and Luc Hessel Reaching Every Child: Achieving Equity in Global Immunization, R. Bruce Aylward, B. Melgaard, M. Birmingham, J. Lloyd, R. Eggers, J. Bilous, and T. Cherian A Paradigm for International Cooperation: The GAVI Alliance, Lisa Jacobs Economic Analyses of Vaccines and Vaccination Programs, Benjamin Schwartz and Mark L. Messonier An Overview of U.S. Food and Drug Administration Licensure of Vaccines, Lydia A. Falk, Norman Baylor, and Karen Midthun Assuring Vaccine Quality by Strengthening Regulatory Agencies, The Work of the World Health Organization, Julie Milstien, Nora Dellepiane, Lahouari Belgharbi, Liliana Chocarro, and David Wood Vaccine Safety, Neal A. Halsey, Robert Ball, and Leslie K. Ball Manufacturing of Vaccines, Guido Dietrich, Julie Milstien, Suresh Jadhav, and Peter C. Stowe Polio Eradication: Ongoing Innovation to End an Ancient Scourge, R. Bruce Aylward, Stephen L. Cochi, and David L. Heymann Recent Advances in Immunology That Impact Vaccine Development, Marcelo B. Sztein, Rafi Ahmed, and Shane Crotty Modulating Vaccine Responses with Innate Immunity, Bali Pulendran, Jeff Powell, and Richard A. Flavell Immunodominance, Deceptive Imprinting, and Immune Refocusing Technology, Peter L. Nara and George Lin Standardization and High-Throughput Measurement of T-Cell Responses to Vaccines, Kent J. Weinhold and Janet S. Ottinger Transition to High-Throughput Laboratory Assays to Evaluate Multivalent Vaccines, Sandra Romero-Steiner, George M. Carlone, Helen Baxendale, and David Goldblatt The Challenge of Vaccine Protection in Very Young Infants, Claire-Anne Siegrist The Challenge of Inducing Vaccine Protection in the Elderly, Dietmar Herndler-Brandstetter, Angelika Schwanninger, and Beatrix Grubeck-Loebenstein Vaccination and Autoimmunity, Paul-Henri Lambert and Michel Goldman Adjuvants for the Future, Richard T. Kenney and Alan S. Cross TLR Agonists for Immune Enhancement of Vaccines, Heather L. Davis Use of Genetically or Chemically Detoxified Mutants of Cholera and Escherichia coli Heat-Labile Enterotoxins as Mucosal Adjuvants., Lucy C. Freytag, John D. Clements, Dubravka Grdic Eliasson, and Nils Lycke Recent Developments in Nonliving Antigen Delivery Systems, Derek T. O'Hagan Virus-Like Particles as Vaccines and Vaccine Delivery Systems, Kathrin U. Jansen, Margaret E. Conner, and Mary K. Estes Subunit Vaccines Produced Using Plant Biotechnology, Qiang Chen, Hugh S. Mason, Tsafrir Mor, Alec Sutherland, Guy A. Cardineau, Charles J. Arntzen, and Carol O. Tacket Lipopeptide-Based Vaccines, David C. Jackson, Brendon Y. Chua, Lorena E. Brown, Peter Moyle, and Istvan Toth Vaccines Based on Dendritic Cell Biology, Silvia B. Boscardin, Michel C. Nussenzweig, Christine Trumpfheller, and Ralph M. Steinman Vaccinia Virus and Other Poxviruses as Live Vectors, Bernard Moss Replication-Defective and Competent Adenovirus Recombinants as Vaccine Vectors, Marjorie Robert-Guroff, Gary J. Nabel, and John W. Shiver RNA Virus Replicon Vaccines, Nancy L. Davis and Robert E. Johnston Engineering of Attenuated Salmonella enterica Serovars for Use as Live Vector Vaccines, James E. Galen, Marcela F. Pasetti, Sharon Tennant, Marcelo B. Sztein, and Myron M. Levine DNA Vaccines, Gary J. Nabel, David C. Kaslow, Jeffrey B. Ulmer, and Margaret A. Liu Overview of Heterologous Prime-Boost Immunization Strategies, Helen McShane, Adrian V. S. Hill, and Andrew McMichael Mucosal Immunization and Needle-Free Injection Devices, Jakub K. Simon, Myron M. Levine, Bruce G. Weniger, and Ana M. H. Restrepo Advances in Transcutaneous Vaccine Delivery, Robert C. Seid, Jr. and Gregory M. Glenn Rationalizing Childhood Immunization Programs: The Variation in Schedules and Use of Combination Vaccines, Andrew J. Pollard, Kathryn M. Edwards, and Bernard Fritzell Meningococcal Conjugate and Protein-Based Vaccines, Andrew J. Pollard, E. Richard Moxon, and Rino Rappuoli Post-Licensure Impact of Haemophilus influenzae Type b and Serogroup C Neisseria meningitidis Conjugate Vaccines in Industrialized Countries, Elizabeth Miller, Helen Campbell, and Mary Ramsay Haemophilus influenzae Type b Disease Burden and the Impact of Programmatic Infant Immunization in Developing Countries, Richard A. Adegbola, Samba O. Sow, and J. Anthony G. Scott Pneumococcal Protein-Polysaccharide Conjugate Vaccines, Cynthia G. Whitney and Orin S. Levine Pneumococcal Common Proteins and Other Vaccine Strategies, David E. Briles, James C. Paton, Susan K. Hollingshead, and John W. Boslego Polysaccharide-Based Conjugate Vaccines for Enteric Bacterial Infections: Typhoid Fever, Nontyphoidal Salmonellosis, and Escherichia coli O:H, Shousun C. Szu, John. B. Robbins, Rachel Schneerson, and F.-Y. Lin Attenuated Strains of Salmonella enterica Serovars Typhi and Paratyphi as Live Oral Vaccines Against Enteric Fever, Myron M. Levine, James E. Galen, Marcela F. Pasetti, and Marcelo B. Sztein Oral Cholera Vaccines, Jan Holmgren and James B. Kaper Novel Vaccines Against Tuberculosis, Marcus A. Horwitz, Peter Andersen, and Stefan H. E. Kaufmann Influenza, John Treanor, Wendy Keitel, and Iain Stephenson Chimeric Vaccines Against Japanese Encephalitis, Dengue, and West Nile, Konstantin V. Pugachev, Farshad Guirakhoo, Dennis W. Trent, and Thomas P. Monath Vaccines Against Rotavirus Gastroenteritis, Richard L. Ward, H. Fred Clark, Paul A. Offit, Umesh D. Parashar, and Roger I. Glass Novel Strategies for Immunizing Infants in Developing Countries Who Are Too Young to Receive the Currently Licensed Measles Vaccines, Marcela F. Pasetti, Karina Ramirez, Karen L. Kotloff, Eileen M. Barry, and Myron M. Levine Challenges and Prospects for the Development of an HIV Vaccine, Barney S. Graham and Gary J. Nabel Vaccine Strategies to Prevent Dengue, Robert Edelman, Stephen S. Whitehead, and David W. Vaughn Vaccination Against the Hepatitis C Virus, Sergio Abrignani, Raffaele De Francesco, and Michael Houghton Vaccines Against Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Parainfluenza Viruses, Alexander Schmidt, Emmalene Bartlett, Anne Schaap-Nutt, Peter L. Collins, Brian R. Murphy, and Ruth Karron Cytomegalovirus Vaccines, David I. Bernstein and Stanley A. Plotkin Epstein-Barr Virus Vaccines, Viviana P. Lutzky and Denis J. Moss Herpes Simplex Vaccines, David M. Koelle, Lawrence R. Stanberry, Reuben S. Carpenter, and Richard J. Whitley Development of Vaccines to Prevent Group A Streptococcal Infections and Rheumatic Fever, J. B. Dale, M. Batzloff, Michael F. Good, J. McCarthy, J. R. Carapetis, P. P. Cleary, V. Fischetti, and J. Zabriski Vaccines Against Group B Streptococcus, Morven S. Edwards, Carol J. Baker, and Lawrence C. Paoletti Overview of Live and Subcellular Vaccine Strategies Against Shigella,.Karen L. Kotloff, Eileen M. Barry, Myron M. Levine, Thomas L. Hale, and Philippe Sansonetti Vaccines Against Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Ann-Mari Svennerholm and Gregory Glenn Multivalent Shigella Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Vaccine, Eileen M. Barry and Myron M. Levine Vaccines for Staphylococcus aureus Infections, Juliane Bubeck Wardenburg, Dominique Missiakas, and Olaf Schneewind Chlamydia trachomatis Vaccines, Renata Grifantini and Guido Grandi Malaria Vaccines in Clinical Development: Introduction and Recombinant/Subunit Approaches, Laura B. Martin, Robert W. Sauerwein, Teun Bousema, David E. Lanar, and Thomas L. Richie Gene-Based Malaria Vaccines, Adrian V. S. Hill Pre-erythrocytic and Asexual Erythrocytic Stage Whole-Organism Malaria Vaccines, Stephen L. Hoffman, B. Kim Lee Sim, Adam Richman, Alberto Pinzon-Charry, Michael F. Good, and J. McCarthy Vaccines Against Leishmania, Farrokh Modabber, Rhea Coler, and Steven G. Reed Vaccines Against Schistosomiasis, Alex Loukas, Jeffrey M. Bethony, Andre' Capron, and Donald P. McManus Vaccines Against Entamoeba histolytica, Christopher D. Huston and William A. Petri, Jr. Hookworm Vaccines, Jeffrey M. Bethony, Maria Elena Bottazzi, Ami Shah Brown, David Diemert, Peter Hotez, and Alex Loukas Improved Smallpox Vaccines, Matthew E. Cohen and Stuart N. Isaacs Anthrax Vaccines, Arthur M. Friedlander, Stephen F. Little, and Marc Gurwith Tularemia Vaccines, Alan S. Cross and Eileen M. Barry Vaccines Against Plague, Scott A. Lloyd Development of Vaccines for Ebola and Marburg Viruses: Efficacy and Regulatory Considerations, Gary J. Nabel Therapeutics and Vaccines Against Hendra and Nipah Viruses, Christopher C. Broder Vaccines Against Lassa Fever, Maria S. Salvato and Igor S. Lukashevich Hantavirus Vaccines, Christopher D. Hammerbeck and Jay W. Hooper SARS Vaccines, Kanta Subbarao Cancer-Specific Vaccines, Drew Pardoll Vaccines Against Human Papillomaviruses, Kathrin U. Jansen and Ian H. Frazer Vaccines Against Alzheimer's and Other Neurodegenerative Diseases, Roy M. Robins-Browne and Colin L. Masters Vaccination for Autoimmune and Other Chronic, Inflammatory Disorders, Leonard C. Harrison Immunotherapies To Treat Drug Addiction., Paul R. Pentel, Dan E. Keyler, and Thomas R. Kosten Index
761 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1992
TL;DR: The contents of this book span from the fascinating 'whodunit' detective work of early investigators in the 1900s to the control methods listed in Chapter II that offer the potential to 'undo it', and the two final chapters on modeling and economic impact acknowledge the broad perspective in which efforts to control the disease are now set.
Abstract: The title of this book does not adequately reflect the comprehensive treatment of a complex and important parasitic disease of domestic cattle. Despite the passing of 100 years, East Coast fever (ECF) remains an economically and environmentally important disease in a continent desperate to increase food production in response to modest expectations from a growing population. The 13 chapters embrace a wide range of subjects, each of which is pertinent to understanding why the disease still remains a constraint and a challenge to livestock production in Africa. Chapters I, 2, 7 and 10 give a historical overview of the study of the disease. Chapters I and 2 provide detailed historical backgrounds to the spread and control of the disease in Southern, Central and Eastem Africa. These chapters are written with great clarity and are rich in detail that might have become lost had they not been wisely commissioned for inclusion in the book. Although Chapter 7 is intended to be a discussion of the host population dynamics, it inevitably becomes a historical review of the pattern of trends in selection of cattle breeds for increased productivity in a continent that was targeted for agricultural exploitation. Chapter 10, under the theme of epidemiological states, revisits the historical pattern of disease by examination of reported case his tones of outbreaks in cattle populations in different geographical loci. In contrast, Chapter II l ists the crucial armour/ of control methods which have been pursued. These methods range from early attempts to eradicate the tick population using arsenical acaricides, to modem-day usage of drugs and the future potential for large-scale vaccination. The contents of these chapters, therefore, span from the fascinating 'whodunit' detective work of early investigators in the 1900s (and, in particular, the pioneering work of Theiler and Koch) to the control methods listed in Chapter II that offer the potential to 'undo it'. Chapters 3, 8 and 9 are targeted primarily at readers with a capacity for absorbing scientific and technical detail. An early chapter on origins, classification and nomenclature lists in tedious scientific format the various taxonomical properties of the many theilerial species. The content of this chapter represents the labour of investigations over many years, and portrays the classical difficulties in obtaining agreement on taxonomical issues. The chapter on parasite population dynamics, in contrast, relates with great simplicity what is a complex relationship between the theilerial parasite and the cattle host; and a chapter on reporting, diagnosis and surveillance reports on the current techniques available for monitoring the effects of the disease under laboratory and field conditions. This chapter should be of interest to those workers interested in measuring the impact of potential control methods on other vector-transmitted diseases. The remaining chapters are written at a general level, and each gives a good overview to the non-specialist. The chapter on tick vectors of theileriosis was fragmented. The Boophilus life cycle seemed out of place and there was undue attention given to the use of the Climex model for the distribution of Amblyomma. This material would have been better placed in the modeling chapter where Climex is discussed in detail. These deviations serve to emphasize that the content of the book is not confined to theileriosis epidemiology in Africa but has wide-reaching implications for all such diseases. The two final chapters on modeling and economic impact acknowledge the broad perspective in which efforts to control the disease are now set. This is an important book on two accounts: (I) it provides a competent and accurate record of scientific achievements in the control of a ticktransmitted disease, and (2) it provides a record of the historical events which have affected the transmission of a disease across national boundaries. Since the conception of the book at a scientific meeting in Lilongwe in 1988, a combination of events has led it towards successful completion. Over the years, aid agencies have remained committed to finding solutions to ECF and their support has sustained a small community of dedicated scientific workers. The collaboration of the authors and the use of other expert contributors has provided a successful formula for the presentation of the material. The authors have produced an accurate and balanced perspective of the epidemiology of theileriosis. The text has already become an important handbook for ECF research workers and will be of value to anyone with an interest in the control of parasitic diseases. To list minor points of criticism would be misleading. Although other contributions could have enhanced the book, this is a first-class volume which has provided a useful service not only for ECF workers, but also for students of tropical diseases, epidemiology, preventive animal health practice and planning. What is interesting is that the end is yet to be written. The control of ECF has come to a crossroads. Recent progress in the development of molecular vaccines and the prospect of models to predict the efficacy and impact of control point to new horizons. Perhaps by the year 2020, ECF will no longer plague African cattle.
454 citations
TL;DR: Comparative biological and morphological studies show that the economically important piroplasms comprise three groups: (1) Babesia species sensu strictu ; (2) Bubesia equi , B. microti ; and (3) Theileria species.
Abstract: Publisher Summary The piroplasms are protozoa that are highly pathogenic to cattle, sheep, goats, and occasionally even to man. They comprise two genera—namely, Theileria and Babesia . The diseases they induce, known collectively as “theilerioses” and “babesioses,” cause fevers and lead to important economic losses in the tropics, subtropics, and southern Europe. This chapter highlights the differences between the life cycles of Babesia and Theileria species with respect to their morphology, studied by means of light and electron microscopy. The chapter describes the life cycle of piroplasms. They have a typical sporozoan life cycle comprising three phases: (1) Schizogony, an asexual reproduction phase in the vertebrate host. (2) Gumogony, the formation and fusion of gametes inside the intestinal cells of ixodid ticks. (3) Sporogony, an asexual reproduction in the salivary gland of the tick leading to the infectious, saliva-transmitted sporozoites. Comparative biological and morphological studies show that the economically important piroplasms comprise three groups: (1) Babesia species sensu strictu ; (2) Bubesia equi , B. microti ; and (3) Theileria species.
443 citations
TL;DR: The vaccine has been tested in the field, has been taken through the full registration process and is now in commercial use in Australia, and a related development has occurred in Cuba.
Abstract: Increasingly, there is need for methods to control cattle tick (Boophilus microplus) infestations by the use of non-chemical technology. This need is brought about by a mixture of market forces and the failure or inadequacy of existing technology. A recombinant vaccine has now been developed against the tick. This vaccine relies on the uptake with the blood meal of antibody directed against a critical protein in the tick gut. The isolation of the vaccine antigen, Bm86, and its production as a recombinant protein is briefly described. The vaccine has been tested in the field, has been taken through the full registration process and is now in commercial use in Australia. A related development has occurred in Cuba. The potential for improvement of the current vaccine and for the development of similar vaccines against other haematophagous parasites is discussed.
343 citations