Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships
01 Aug 1997-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (American Psychological Association)-Vol. 73, Iss: 2, pp 321-336
TL;DR: Evidence is found consistent with the hypotheses that the relationship between receiving an apology from and forgiving one's offender is a function of increased empathy for the offender and that forgiving is uniquely related to conciliatory behavior and avoidance behavior toward the offending partner.
Abstract: Forgiving is a motivational transformation that inclines people to inhibit relationship-destructive responses and to behave constructively toward someone who has behaved destructively toward them. The authors describe a model of forgiveness based on the hypothesis that people forgive others to the extent that they experience empathy for them. Two studies investigated the empathy model of forgiveness. In Study 1, the authors developed measures of empathy and forgiveness. The authors found evidence consistent with the hypotheses that (a) the relationship between receiving an apology from and forgiving one's offender is a function of increased empathy for the offender and (b) that forgiving is uniquely related to conciliatory behavior and avoidance behavior toward the offending partner. In Study 2, the authors conducted an intervention in which empathy was manipulated to examine the empathy-forgiving relationship more closely. Results generally supported the conceptualization of forgiving as a motivational phenomenon and the empathy-forgiving link.
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Journal Article•
TL;DR: Sutton et al. as mentioned in this paper examined the effect of three features of apology (admission of guilt, excuse-making, and responsibility-taking), as well as influence of participant gender, on forgiveness.
Abstract: We examined the effects of apology and gender on willingness to forgive or restore clergy following a sexual offense. In Study 1, men were more restoring than women were. Men were more forgiving of a female pastor who did not apologize, and women were more forgiving of a male pastor who did not apologize. In Study 2, we examined the effect of three features of apology (admission of guilt, excuse-making, and responsibility-taking), as well as influence of participant gender, on forgiveness. Women were more forgiving of a male pastor who took responsibility, and men were more forgiving of a male pastor who did not take responsibility. We concluded with suggestions for research and practice. In the recent past, much research has been conducted on the topic of forgiveness (Karremans, Van Lange, Ouwerkerk, & Kluwer, 2003; McCullough, Fincham, & Tsang, 2003; Mullet et al., 2003). Researchers have found relationships between forgiveness and mental health (Coyle & Enright, 1997; Freedman & Enright, 1997; Konstam et al., 2000), between forgiveness and physical health (Witvliet, Ludwig, & Vander Laan, 2001), and between forgiveness and healthy relationships (Boon & Sulsky, 1997; Worthington, 1998). In addition, researchers have studied forgiveness in response to apologies (Bennett & Earwalker, 1994; Ziechmeister & Romero, 2002) and responsibility-taking, usually in the form of restitution or offers of compensation (Schoener & Gonsiorek, 1988; Ziechmeister & Romero, 2002). Some research exists concerning the relationship between forgiveness and gender (Konstam, Chernoff, & Deveney, 2001; Ryan & Kumar, 2005), and limited research exists concerning these variables as they relate to clergy and congregants (Hopkins & Laaser, 1995; Pop, Sutton, & Jones, 2008; Sutton & Thomas, 2005a). In the present two studies, we looked at the relationship of gender and apology (presence and type), including responsibility-taking to the ability of congregants to forgive or restore a minister who violated sexual boundaries with a congregant. Extent and Impact of the Problem Clearly, sexual abuse of congregants by clergy is an ongoing problem (Francis & Turner, 1995; Hadman-Cromwell, 1991). Over the last two decades, researchers have found sexual boundary violations by clergy to range from 12% to 15% (How common, 1988; Thoburn & Balswick, 1998). In two studies on gender and forgiveness, Sutton, McLeland, Weaks, Cogs well, and Miphouvieng (2007) found between 29% and 37% of participants reported knowing a pastor with a problem that affected the ministry, and between 20% and 27% reported knowing a pastor who had a sexual problem while in the ministry. (See Sutton & Thomas, 2005a, for a more comprehensive review of the problem.) Even though sexual boundary violations by clergy are a problem, more research has been conducted concerning sexual offenses by mental health workers towards clients than by clergy against congregants; furthermore, the results of offenses by professionals in both groups have similarities (Bajt & Pope, 1989; Haspel, Jorgensen, Wincze, & Parsons, 1997; Lamb & Catanzaro, 1998; Pope, 1987; Rodolfa, Kitzrow, & Vohra, 1990; Sutton, Washburn, Comtois, & Moeckel, 2000). A sexual relationship in either situation is a boundary violation (Lamb & Catanzaro, 1998; Lamb, Catanzaro, & Moorman, 2003) and involves a power differential (Hadman-Cromwell, 1991). In fact, ethics for mental health professionals, including pastoral counselors, prohibit sexual boundary violations (See Sutton & Thomas, 2005a, for a more detailed review of professional ethics codes and criminal and civil statutes concerning this topic.) Sexual boundary violations by those in the helping fields have the potential to cause great harm to the victims. Symptoms for clients who have been violated sexually by their therapists can include depression, loss of motivation, interpersonal difficulties, suicidal ideation or behavior, increased drug or alcohol use, (Bouhoutsos, Holroyd, Lerman, Forer, & Greenberg, 1983), emotional turmoil, isolation, self-blame, rage, fear, shame, and problems with trust (Disch & Avery, 2001). …
18 citations
TL;DR: The willingness to forgive was examined in a sample of 517 Kuwaiti citizens, aged 12 to 55 years as discussed by the authors, who were instructed first to read a certain number of stories (in which a harmful act was committed against a child) and then to express their willingness to forgiving in each case.
Abstract: The willingness to forgive was examined in a sample of 517 Kuwaiti citizens, aged 12 to 55 years. Participants were instructed first to read a certain number of stories (in which a harmful act was committed against a child) and then to express their willingness to forgive in each case. The stories included four factors: intent to harm, religious proximity, presence/absence of apologies, and cancellation of consequences. A high level of willingness to forgive was observed among the Kuwaitis studies, irrespective of participants' age and gender. The impact of the religious proximity factor was limited to a very small fraction of the sample.
17 citations
TL;DR: Forgiveness involves replacing negative thoughts, feelings, and behaviors with constructive responses following an interpersonal offense as mentioned in this paper, which replaces negative thoughts and feelings with constructive ones following a specific interpersonal offense.
Abstract: Forgiveness involves replacing negative thoughts, feelings, and behaviors with constructive responses following an interpersonal offense. Although older adults report themselves to be more forgiving than younger adults, it is unclear why. The current study examined forgiveness of specific offenses in two samples of Roman Catholic women. Participants wrote about an interpersonal offense and completed a multi-dimensional measure of forgiveness with regard to the offense. On 5 of 10 dimensions, older women (n = 26; mean age = 74 years) were significantly more forgiving of specific offenses than were younger women (n = 37; mean age = 19 years). Religiousness/spirituality and current hurt/anger about the offense partially mediated the associations between age group and forgiveness. The results support models of successful aging, with older women showing greater likelihood of responding to interpersonal conflicts with forgiveness.
17 citations
Cites background from "Interpersonal forgiving in close re..."
...The 10 subscales showed good internal consistency, and several studies have provided evidence of one or more subscales’ utility as outcome measures in intervention studies (e.g., McCullough and Worthington 1995; McCullough et al. 1997, 1998 )....
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...The 10 subscales showed good internal consistency, and several studies have provided evidence of one or more subscales’ utility as outcome measures in intervention studies (e.g., McCullough and Worthington 1995; McCullough et al. 1997, 1998)....
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Journal Article•
TL;DR: Gençoğlu et al. as mentioned in this paper examined the relationship between three factors (depression, anxiety, and stress) with general self-efficacy and forgiveness of the self, others, and situations.
Abstract: Citation: Gençoğlu, C., Şahin, E., & Topkaya, N. (2018). General self-efficacy and forgiveness of self, others and situations as predictors of depression, anxiety and stress in university students. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 18, 605–626. http://dx.doi.org/10.12738/estp.2018.3.0128 1 Correspondence to: Cem Gençoğlu, General Directorate of Basic Education, Ministry of National Education, Ankara 06650 Turkey. Email: cemgencoglu@meb.gov.tr 2 Department of Guidance and Psychological Counseling, Faculty of Education, Amasya University, Merkez, Amasya 05100 Turkey. Email: ertugrulsahin@amasya.edu.tr 3 Department of Guidance and Psychological Counseling, Faculty of Education, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Atakum, Samsun 55139 Turkey. Email: nursel.topkaya@omu.edu.tr Abstract The aim of this study was to examine the relationships between three factors—depression, anxiety, and stress— with general self-efficacy and forgiveness of the self, others, and situations. A convenience sample of 542 students (335 females, 207 males) was recruited from a university in the Central Black Sea Region of Turkey. Participants responded to the Heartland Forgiveness Scale, Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale, Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-42), and a personal information form to determine their forgiveness, self-efficacy, depression, anxiety and stress levels, as well as their socio-demographics. Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation analysis and multivariate multiple regression analysis. The results of this study suggested that forgiveness of self and situations were negatively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. However, forgiveness of others and general self-efficacy were not significant predictors of depression, anxiety, or stress. Mental health practitioners should focus on increasing their clients’ forgiveness levels to help them cope effectively with negative affectivity symptoms including depression, anxiety, and stress in university students.
17 citations
TL;DR: In the wake of an interpersonal offense, victims often feel motivated to avoid their perpetrators, and the more severe the offense, the more pronounced this motivation is as discussed by the authors, however, avoidance may also serve a retaliatory purpose in which victims shun their offenders out of anger and hostility, using interpersonal aloofness as a means of payback.
Abstract: In the wake of an interpersonal offense, victims often feel motivated to avoid their perpetrators, and the more severe the offense, the more pronounced this motivation is. On the surface, avoidance appears to serve a self-protective function such that victims, compelled by a sense of fear and apprehension, withdraw from their wrongdoers to prevent further harm. However, avoidance might also serve a retaliatory purpose in which victims shun their offenders out of anger and hostility, using interpersonal aloofness as a means of payback. In the present pair of studies, we examined victims’ self-reports of recent offense experiences and tested the mediating roles of fear and anger in the relationship between offense severity and avoidance motivations. Study 1 revealed that anger, not fear, was the emotion that mediated this relationship. Study 2 replicated this finding and also showed that the link between anger and avoidance was mediated both by revenge and self-protection motives, which demonstrates the complex nature of avoidance following a transgression.
17 citations
Cites background from "Interpersonal forgiving in close re..."
...Consequently, people are often left with the misfortune of coping with the fall out of distressing relationship experiences, like interpersonal offenses, and two ways that theorists have proposed that people deal with such experiences is through vengeance and avoidance (McCullough et al. 1998; McCullough et al. 1997 )....
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References
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TL;DR: Two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) are developed and are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period.
Abstract: In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented.
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TL;DR: A new coefficient is proposed to summarize the relative reduction in the noncentrality parameters of two nested models and two estimators of the coefficient yield new normed (CFI) and nonnormed (FI) fit indexes.
Abstract: Normed and nonnormed fit indexes are frequently used as adjuncts to chi-square statistics for evaluating the fit of a structural model A drawback of existing indexes is that they estimate no known population parameters A new coefficient is proposed to summarize the relative reduction in the noncentrality parameters of two nested models Two estimators of the coefficient yield new normed (CFI) and nonnormed (FI) fit indexes CFI avoids the underestimation of fit often noted in small samples for Bentler and Bonett's (1980) normed fit index (NFI) FI is a linear function of Bentler and Bonett's non-normed fit index (NNFI) that avoids the extreme underestimation and overestimation often found in NNFI Asymptotically, CFI, FI, NFI, and a new index developed by Bollen are equivalent measures of comparative fit, whereas NNFI measures relative fit by comparing noncentrality per degree of freedom All of the indexes are generalized to permit use of Wald and Lagrange multiplier statistics An example illustrates the behavior of these indexes under conditions of correct specification and misspecification The new fit indexes perform very well at all sample sizes
21,588 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1958TL;DR: The psychology of interpersonal relations as mentioned in this paper, The psychology in interpersonal relations, The Psychology of interpersonal relationships, کتابخانه دیجیتال و فن اطلاعات دانشگاه امام صادق(ع)
Abstract: The psychology of interpersonal relations , The psychology of interpersonal relations , کتابخانه دیجیتال و فن آوری اطلاعات دانشگاه امام صادق(ع)
15,254 citations
Additional excerpts
...Social psychologists have also addressed interpersonal forgiving from time to time (Darby & Schlenker, 1982; Gahagan & Tedeschi, 1968; Heider, 1958; Horai, Lindskold, Gahagan, & Tedeschi, 1969; Weiner, Graham, Peter, & Zmuidinas, 1991)....
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TL;DR: A scale of current subjective distress, related to a specific event, was based on a list of items composed of commonly reported experiences of intrusion and avoidance, and responses indicated that the scale had a useful degree of significance and homogeneity.
Abstract: Clinical, field, and experimental studies of response to potentially stressful life events give concordant findings: there is a general human tendency to undergo episodes of intrusive thinking and periods of avoidance. A scale of current subjective distress, related to a specific event, was based on a list of items composed of commonly reported experiences of intrusion and avoidance. Responses of 66 persons admitted to an outpatient clinic for the treatment of stress response syndromes indicated that the scale had a useful degree of significance and homogeneity. Empirical clusters supported the concept of subscores for intrusions and avoidance responses.
7,692 citations
TL;DR: The Dyadic Adjustment Scale as discussed by the authors is a measure for assessing the quality of marriage and other similar dyads, which is designed for use with either married or unmarried cohabiting couples.
Abstract: This study reports on the development of the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, a new measure for assessing the quality of marriage and other similar dyads. The 32-item scale is designed for use with either married or unmarried cohabiting couples. Despite widespread criticisms of the concept of adjustment, the study proceeds from the pragmatic position that a new measure, which is theoretically grounded, relevant, valid, and highly reliable, is necessary since marital and dyadic adjustment continue to be researched. This factor analytic study tests a conceptual definition set forth in eariler work and suggests the existence of four empirically verified components of dyadic adjustment which can be used as subscales [dyadic satisfaction, dyadic cohesion, dyadic consensus and affectional expression]. Evidence is presented suggesting content, criterion-related, and construct validity. High scale reliability is reported. The possibility of item weighting is considered and endorsed as a potential measurement technique, but it not adopted for the present Dyadic Adjustment Scale. It is concluded that the Dyadic Adjustment Scale represents a significant improvement over other measures of marital adjustment, but a number of troublesome methodological issues remain for future research.
6,899 citations