Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships
01 Aug 1997-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (American Psychological Association)-Vol. 73, Iss: 2, pp 321-336
TL;DR: Evidence is found consistent with the hypotheses that the relationship between receiving an apology from and forgiving one's offender is a function of increased empathy for the offender and that forgiving is uniquely related to conciliatory behavior and avoidance behavior toward the offending partner.
Abstract: Forgiving is a motivational transformation that inclines people to inhibit relationship-destructive responses and to behave constructively toward someone who has behaved destructively toward them. The authors describe a model of forgiveness based on the hypothesis that people forgive others to the extent that they experience empathy for them. Two studies investigated the empathy model of forgiveness. In Study 1, the authors developed measures of empathy and forgiveness. The authors found evidence consistent with the hypotheses that (a) the relationship between receiving an apology from and forgiving one's offender is a function of increased empathy for the offender and (b) that forgiving is uniquely related to conciliatory behavior and avoidance behavior toward the offending partner. In Study 2, the authors conducted an intervention in which empathy was manipulated to examine the empathy-forgiving relationship more closely. Results generally supported the conceptualization of forgiving as a motivational phenomenon and the empathy-forgiving link.
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TL;DR: Four studies examine the construct validity of the Tendency to Forgive Scale (TTF), a brief measure of dispositional forgiveness, finding that romantic partners' ratings of targets converged with targets' self-ratings, and that higher scores on the TTF were associated with lower offense accessibility.
Abstract: Four studies examine the construct validity of the Tendency to Forgive Scale (TTF), a brief measure of dispositional forgiveness. Study 1 showed that romantic partners' ratings of targets converged with targets' self-ratings, and Study 2 demonstrated that higher scores on the TTF were associated with lower offense accessibility. Study 3 examined the TTF's relation to self-reported depression symptoms, both independent of and interacting with attitudes toward forgiveness and dispositional vengeance. Lower TTF scores were associated with higher degrees of depression, especially for individuals with positive attitudes toward forgiveness or those low in dispositional vengeance, although neither of these latter variables displayed significant zero-order relations with depression. Finally, Study 4 examined relations between the TTF, dispositional empathy, another recent measure of dispositional forgiveness, and the dimensions of the Big Five, providing both convergent and discriminant validity evidence for the TTF.
438 citations
Cites background from "Interpersonal forgiving in close re..."
...Because being able to take another person’s perspective, especially in conflict situations, should facilitate forgiveness (see Fincham, 2000; McCullough et al., 1998; McCullough, Worthington, & Rachal, 1997 ), it also was predicted that dispositional forgiveness would be positively correlated with dispositional perspective taking, as measured by the perspective taking subscale of Davis’s (1983) Interpersonal Reactivity Inventory (IRI), ......
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Book•
11 Dec 2007
TL;DR: Worthington et al. as discussed by the authors presented a meta-analysis of group interventions to promote self-forgiveness and found that most of the interventions did not work well in practice.
Abstract: Worthington, Jr., Initial Questions about the Art and Science of Forgiving. Part I: Nature, Philosophy, Religion and Forgiveness. de Waal, Pokorny, Primate Conflict Resolution and its Relation to Human Forgiveness. Murphy, Forgiveness, Self-respect and the Value of Resentment. Sandage, Williamson, Forgiveness in the Cultural Context. Mahoney, Rye, Pargament, When the Sacred is Violated: Desecration as a Unique Challenge to Forgiveness. Exline, Martin, Anger Toward God: A New Frontier in Forgiveness Research. Part II: Methods of Studying Forgiveness. McCullough, Root, Forgiveness as Change. Hoyt, McCullough, Issues in the Multi-modal Measurement of Forgiveness. Part III: The Psychology of Forgiveness. Denham, Neal, Wilson, Pickering, Boyatzis, Emotional Development and Forgiveness in Children: Emerging Evidence. Tangney, Boone, Dearing, Forgiving the Self: Conceptual Issues and Empirical Findings. Mullet, Neto, Riviere, Personality and its Effects on Resentment, Revenge and Forgiveness and on Self-forgiveness. Part IV: Close Relationships and Forgiveness. Rusbult, Hannon, Stocker, Finkel, Forgiveness and Relational Repair. Fincham, Hall, Beach, 'Til Lack of Forgivenes Doth Us Part': Forgiveness in Marriage. Battle, Miller, Families and Forgiveness. Part V: The Body and Forgiveness. Tsuang, Eaves, Nir, Jerksy, Lyons, Genetic Influences on Forgiving. Farrow, Woodruff, Neuroimaging of Forgivability. Sapolsky, The Physiology and Pathophysiology of Unhappiness. van Oyen Witvliet, Unforgiveness, Forgiveness and Justice: Peripheral Physiology Findings. Harris, Thoresen, Forgiveness, Unforgiveness, Health and Disease. Temoshok, Wald, Forgiveness and Health in Persons Living with HIV/AIDS. Toussaint, Webb, Theoretical and Empirical Connections Between Forgiveness, Mental Health and Well-being. Noll, Forgiveness in People Experiencing Trauma. Part VI: Intervening to Promote Forgiveness. Malcolm, Warware, Greenberg, Facilitating Forgiveness in Individual Therapy as an Approach to Resolving Interpersonal Injuries. Freedman, Enright, Knutson, A Progress Report on the Process Model of Forgiveness. Gordon, Baucom, Snyder, Forgiveness in Couples: Divorce, Affairs and Couple Therapy. Wade, Worthington Jr., Meyer, But Do They Really Work? A Meta-analysis of Group Interventions to Promote Forgiveness. Part VII: Societal Issues Involving Forgiveness. Staub, Constructive Rather Than Harmful Forgiveness, Reconciliation and Ways to Promote Them after Genocide and Mass Killing. Cairns, Tam, Hewstone, Niens, Intergroup Forgiveness and Intergroup Conflict: Northern Ireland, A Case Study. Hill, Exline, Cohen, The Social Psychology of Forgiveness and Justive in Civil and Organizational Settings. Armour, Umbreit, The Paradox of Forgiveness in Restorative Justice. Part VIII: Present and Future of Forgiveness. Scherer, Cooke, Worthington Jr., Forgiveness Bibliography. Worthington Jr., Questions, Some Answers, and More Questions about Forgiveness: Research Agenda for 2005-2015.
429 citations
TL;DR: A needs-based model of reconciliation is developed that posits that being a victim is associated with a threat to one's status and power, whereas being a perpetrator threatens one's image as moral and socially acceptable and a social exchange interaction in which these threats are removed should enhance the parties' willingness to reconcile.
Abstract: The authors propose that conflict threatens different psychological resources of victims and perpetrators and that these threats contribute to the maintenance of conflict (A. Nadler, 2002; A. Nadler & I. Liviatan, 2004; A. Nadler & N. Shnabel, in press). On the basis of this general proposition, the authors developed a needs-based model of reconciliation that posits that being a victim is associated with a threat to one's status and power, whereas being a perpetrator threatens one's image as moral and socially acceptable. To counter these threats, victims must restore their sense of power, whereas perpetrators must restore their public moral image. A social exchange interaction in which these threats are removed should enhance the parties' willingness to reconcile. The results of 4 studies on interpersonal reconciliation support these hypotheses. Applied and theoretical implications of this model are discussed.
427 citations
Cites background from "Interpersonal forgiving in close re..."
...…(Baumeister, Stillwell, & Wotman, 1990) as well as their need to have others express understanding and empathy regarding the circumstances that compelled them to act in a socially unacceptable way (Nadler & Liviatan, 2004, 2006) and empathy for their emotional distress (McCullough et al., 1997)....
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...Unlike past research on victim–perpetrator relations that has investigated this topic through the use of roleplaying techniques (e.g., Foster & Rusbult, 1999) or recall of relevant life situations (e.g., McCullough et al., 1997), we chose a laboratory setting to test our hypotheses....
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...The anxiety over social exclusion increases perpetrators’ motivation to perceive themselves as acceptable people (Baumeister, Stillwell, & Wotman, 1990) as well as their need to have others express understanding and empathy regarding the circumstances that compelled them to act in a socially unacceptable way (Nadler & Liviatan, 2004, 2006) and empathy for their emotional distress (McCullough et al., 1997)....
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TL;DR: It is suggested that narcissistic entitlement is a robust, distinct predictor of unforgiveness, as demonstrated in 6 studies.
Abstract: Narcissistic entitlement impedes forgiveness in ways not captured by other robust predictors (e.g., offense severity, apology, relationship closeness, religiosity, Big Five personality factors), as demonstrated in 6 studies. Narcissistic entitlement involves expectations of special treatment and preoccupation with defending one's rights. In Study 1, entitlement predicted less forgiveness and greater insistence on repayment for a past offense. Complementary results emerged from Study 2, which used hypothetical transgressions, and Study 3, which assessed broad forgiveness dispositions. Study 4 examined associations with the Big Five, and Study 5 extended the findings to a laboratory context. Study 6 demonstrated that entitlement predicted diminished increases in forgiveness over time. Taken together, these results suggest that narcissistic entitlement is a robust, distinct predictor of unforgiveness.
427 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a model intended to further assist and guide subsequent empirical exploration of the personal, relationship, and environmental factors that lead people to either unforgiveness or forgiveness.
Abstract: Unforgiveness and forgiveness are distinct. One cannot forgive unless unforgiveness has occurred, but one might reduce unforgiveness by many ways—only one of which is forgiveness. We present a model intended to further assist and guide subsequent empirical exploration. The model explains the personal, relationship, and environmental factors that lead people to either unforgiveness or forgiveness. Related areas are reviewed to stimulate as yet unexplored research and clinical efforts related to forgiveness. Clinical protocols for promoting forgiveness in enrichment, preventative, and therapeutic contexts are described.
416 citations
References
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TL;DR: Two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) are developed and are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period.
Abstract: In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented.
34,482 citations
TL;DR: A new coefficient is proposed to summarize the relative reduction in the noncentrality parameters of two nested models and two estimators of the coefficient yield new normed (CFI) and nonnormed (FI) fit indexes.
Abstract: Normed and nonnormed fit indexes are frequently used as adjuncts to chi-square statistics for evaluating the fit of a structural model A drawback of existing indexes is that they estimate no known population parameters A new coefficient is proposed to summarize the relative reduction in the noncentrality parameters of two nested models Two estimators of the coefficient yield new normed (CFI) and nonnormed (FI) fit indexes CFI avoids the underestimation of fit often noted in small samples for Bentler and Bonett's (1980) normed fit index (NFI) FI is a linear function of Bentler and Bonett's non-normed fit index (NNFI) that avoids the extreme underestimation and overestimation often found in NNFI Asymptotically, CFI, FI, NFI, and a new index developed by Bollen are equivalent measures of comparative fit, whereas NNFI measures relative fit by comparing noncentrality per degree of freedom All of the indexes are generalized to permit use of Wald and Lagrange multiplier statistics An example illustrates the behavior of these indexes under conditions of correct specification and misspecification The new fit indexes perform very well at all sample sizes
21,588 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1958TL;DR: The psychology of interpersonal relations as mentioned in this paper, The psychology in interpersonal relations, The Psychology of interpersonal relationships, کتابخانه دیجیتال و فن اطلاعات دانشگاه امام صادق(ع)
Abstract: The psychology of interpersonal relations , The psychology of interpersonal relations , کتابخانه دیجیتال و فن آوری اطلاعات دانشگاه امام صادق(ع)
15,254 citations
Additional excerpts
...Social psychologists have also addressed interpersonal forgiving from time to time (Darby & Schlenker, 1982; Gahagan & Tedeschi, 1968; Heider, 1958; Horai, Lindskold, Gahagan, & Tedeschi, 1969; Weiner, Graham, Peter, & Zmuidinas, 1991)....
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TL;DR: A scale of current subjective distress, related to a specific event, was based on a list of items composed of commonly reported experiences of intrusion and avoidance, and responses indicated that the scale had a useful degree of significance and homogeneity.
Abstract: Clinical, field, and experimental studies of response to potentially stressful life events give concordant findings: there is a general human tendency to undergo episodes of intrusive thinking and periods of avoidance. A scale of current subjective distress, related to a specific event, was based on a list of items composed of commonly reported experiences of intrusion and avoidance. Responses of 66 persons admitted to an outpatient clinic for the treatment of stress response syndromes indicated that the scale had a useful degree of significance and homogeneity. Empirical clusters supported the concept of subscores for intrusions and avoidance responses.
7,692 citations
TL;DR: The Dyadic Adjustment Scale as discussed by the authors is a measure for assessing the quality of marriage and other similar dyads, which is designed for use with either married or unmarried cohabiting couples.
Abstract: This study reports on the development of the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, a new measure for assessing the quality of marriage and other similar dyads. The 32-item scale is designed for use with either married or unmarried cohabiting couples. Despite widespread criticisms of the concept of adjustment, the study proceeds from the pragmatic position that a new measure, which is theoretically grounded, relevant, valid, and highly reliable, is necessary since marital and dyadic adjustment continue to be researched. This factor analytic study tests a conceptual definition set forth in eariler work and suggests the existence of four empirically verified components of dyadic adjustment which can be used as subscales [dyadic satisfaction, dyadic cohesion, dyadic consensus and affectional expression]. Evidence is presented suggesting content, criterion-related, and construct validity. High scale reliability is reported. The possibility of item weighting is considered and endorsed as a potential measurement technique, but it not adopted for the present Dyadic Adjustment Scale. It is concluded that the Dyadic Adjustment Scale represents a significant improvement over other measures of marital adjustment, but a number of troublesome methodological issues remain for future research.
6,899 citations