Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships
01 Aug 1997-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (American Psychological Association)-Vol. 73, Iss: 2, pp 321-336
TL;DR: Evidence is found consistent with the hypotheses that the relationship between receiving an apology from and forgiving one's offender is a function of increased empathy for the offender and that forgiving is uniquely related to conciliatory behavior and avoidance behavior toward the offending partner.
Abstract: Forgiving is a motivational transformation that inclines people to inhibit relationship-destructive responses and to behave constructively toward someone who has behaved destructively toward them. The authors describe a model of forgiveness based on the hypothesis that people forgive others to the extent that they experience empathy for them. Two studies investigated the empathy model of forgiveness. In Study 1, the authors developed measures of empathy and forgiveness. The authors found evidence consistent with the hypotheses that (a) the relationship between receiving an apology from and forgiving one's offender is a function of increased empathy for the offender and (b) that forgiving is uniquely related to conciliatory behavior and avoidance behavior toward the offending partner. In Study 2, the authors conducted an intervention in which empathy was manipulated to examine the empathy-forgiving relationship more closely. Results generally supported the conceptualization of forgiving as a motivational phenomenon and the empathy-forgiving link.
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TL;DR: This paper identified positive and negative patterns of religious coping methods, developed a brief measure of these religious coping patterns, and examined their implications for health and adjustment, using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses.
Abstract: This study attempted to identify positive and negative patterns of religious coping methods, develop a brief measure of these religious coping patterns, and examine their implications for health and adjustment. Through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, positive and negative religious coping patterns were identified in samples of people coping with the Oklahoma City bombing, college students coping with major life stressors, and elderly hospitalized patients coping with serious medical illnesses. A 14-item measure of positive and negative patterns of religious coping methods (Brief RCOPE) was constructed. The positive pattern consisted of religious forgiveness, seeking spiritual support, collaborative religious coping, spiritual connection, religious purification, and benevolent religious reappraisal. The negative pattern was defined by spiritual discontent, punishing God reappraisals, interpersonal religious discontent, demonic reap praisal, and reappraisal of God's powers. As predicted, people made more use of the positive than the negative religious coping methods. Furthermore, the two patterns had different implications for health and adjustment. The Brief RCOPE offers an efficient, theoretically meaningful way to integrate religious dimensions into models and studies of stress, coping, and health.
2,059 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the correlates of the disposition toward gratitude and found that self-ratings and observer ratings of the grateful disposition are associated with positive affect and well-being, prosocial behaviors and traits, and religiousness/spirituality.
Abstract: In four studies, the authors examined the correlates of the disposition toward gratitude. Study 1 revealed that self-ratings and observer ratings of the grateful disposition are associated with positive affect and well-being, prosocial behaviors and traits, and religiousness/spirituality. Study 2 replicated these findings in a large nonstudent sample. Study 3 yielded similar results to Studies 1 and 2 and provided evidence that gratitude is negatively associated with envy and materialistic attitudes. Study 4 yielded evidence that these associations persist after controlling for Extraversion/positive affectivity, Neuroticism/negative affectivity, and Agreeableness. The development of the Gratitude Questionnaire, a unidimensional measure with good psychometric properties, is also described.
1,768 citations
TL;DR: The development of the transgression-related interpersonal motivations inventory is described--a self-report measure designed to assess the 2-component motivational system (Avoidance and Revenge) posited to underlie forgiving, which demonstrated a variety of desirable psychometric properties.
Abstract: Interpersonal forgiving was conceptualized in the context of a 2-factor motivational system that governs people's responses to interpersonal offenses Four studies were conducted to examine the extent to which forgiving could be predicted with relationship-level variables such as satisfaction, commitment, and closeness; offense-level variables such as apology and impact of the offense; and social-cognitive variables such as offunder-focused empathy and rumination about the offense Also described is the development of the transgression-related interpersonal motivations inventory--a self-report measure designed to assess the 2-component motivational system (Avoidance and Revenge) posited to underlie forgiving The measure demonstrated a variety of desirable psychometric properties, commending its use for future research As predicted, empathy, apology, rumination, and several indexes of relationship closeness were associated with self-reported forgiving
1,514 citations
TL;DR: The personality and social factors that are associated with gratitude are consistent with a conceptualization of gratitude as an affect that is relevant to people's cognitions and behaviors in the moral domain.
Abstract: Gratitude is conceptualized as a moral affect that is analogous to other moral emotions such as empathy and guilt. Gratitude has 3 functions that can be conceptualized as morally relevant: (a) a moral barometer function (i.e., it is a response to the perception that one has been the beneficiary of another person's moral actions); (b) a moral motive function (i.e., it motivates the grateful person to behave prosocially toward the benefactor and other people); and (c) a moral reinforcer function (i.e., when expressed, it encourages benefactors to behave morally in the future). The personality and social factors that are associated with gratitude are also consistent with a conceptualization of gratitude as an affect that is relevant to people's cognitions and behaviors in the moral domain.
1,297 citations
TL;DR: The theory illuminates the understanding of social-cognitive processes that are of longstanding interest to psychologists such as cognition and affect, attribution, and self-presentation and explains adaptation to repeatedly encountered interdependence patterns.
Abstract: Interdependence theory presents a logical analysis of the structure of interpersonal situations, offering a conceptual framework in which interdependence situations can be analyzed in terms of six dimensions. Specific situations present specific problems and opportunities, logically implying the relevance of specific motives and permitting their expression. Via the concept of transformation, the theory explains how interaction is shaped by broader considerations such as long-term goals and concern for a partner's welfare. The theory illuminates our understanding of social-cognitive processes that are of longstanding interest to psychologists such as cognition and affect, attribution, and self-presentation. The theory also explains adaptation to repeatedly encountered interdependence patterns, as well as the embodiment of such adaptations in interpersonal dispositions, relationship-specific motives, and social norms.
956 citations
Cites background from "Interpersonal forgiving in close re..."
...…and acts are also more probable among individuals with greater self-control, more secure attachment, greater psychological femininity, and stronger perspective-taking tendencies (Arriaga & Rusbult 1998, Finkel & Campbell 2001, Gaines et al. 1997, McCullough et al. 1997, Rusbult et al. 1991)....
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...Such situations call for forgiveness (Finkel et al. 2002, McCullough et al. 1997)....
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TL;DR: In this paper, a Monte Carlo confirmatory factor analysis study was conducted to evaluate the suitability of 6 test statistics for covariance structure analysis, and the results showed that the Satorra-Bentler scaled test statistic performed best overall.
Abstract: Covariance structure analysis uses chi 2 goodness-of-fit test statistics whose adequacy is not known. Scientific conclusions based on models may be distorted when researchers violate sample size, variate independence, and distributional assumptions. The behavior of 6 test statistics is evaluated with a Monte Carlo confirmatory factor analysis study. The tests performed dramatically differently under 7 distributional conditions at 6 sample sizes. Two normal-theory tests worked well under some conditions but completely broke down under other conditions. A test that permits homogeneous nonzero kurtoses performed variably. A test that permits heterogeneous marginal kurtoses performed better. A distribution-free test performed spectacularly badly in all conditions at all but the largest sample sizes. The Satorra-Bentler scaled test statistic performed best overall.
1,418 citations
TL;DR: It is suggested that the conditions that lead to empathic concern also lead to a greater sense of self-other overlap, raising the possibility that helping under these conditions is not selfless but is also directed toward the self.
Abstract: Important features of the self-concept can be located outside of the individual and inside close or related others. The authors use this insight to reinterpret data previously said to support the empathy-altruism model of helping, which asserts that empathic concern for another results in selflessness and true altruism. That is, they argue that the conditions that lead to empathic concern also lead to a greater sense of self-other overlap, raising the possibility that helping under these conditions is not selfless but is also directed toward the self. In 3 studies, the impact of empathic concern on willingness to help was eliminated when oneness--a measure of perceived self-other overlap--was considered. Path analyses revealed further that empathic concern increased helping only through its relation to perceived oneness, thereby throwing the empathy-altruism model into question. The authors suggest that empathic concern affects helping primarily as an emotional signal of oneness.
1,236 citations
TL;DR: Analysis of participants' phenomenological ratings clearly demonstrated that shame, guilt, and embarrassment are not merely different terms for the same affective experience, and the differences among the 3 could not be explained simply by intensity of affect or by degree of moral transgression.
Abstract: 182 undergraduates described personal embarrassment, shame, and guilt experiences and rated these experiences on structural and phenomenological dimensions. Contrary to popular belief, shame was no more likely than guilt to be experienced in "public" situations; all 3 emotions typically occurred in social contexts, but a significant proportion of shame and guilt events occurred when respondents were alone. Analyses of participants' phenomenological ratings clearly demonstrated that shame, guilt, and embarrassment are not merely different terms for the same affective experience. In particular, embarrassment was a relatively distant neighbor of shame and guilt, and the differences among the 3 could not be explained simply by intensity of affect or by degree of moral transgression. Finally, participants generally were their own harshest critics in each type of event, evaluating themselves more negatively than they believed others did.
1,077 citations
TL;DR: A theory of accommodation processes is advanced, and the results of 6 studies are reported as discussed by the authors, and it is shown that self-reports of accommodation are related to relevant behavioral measures, such as commitment, commitment, investment size, centrality of relationship, psychological femininity, and partner perspective taking.
Abstract: A theory of accommodation processes is advanced, and the results of 6 studies are reported. Accommodation refers to the willingness, when a partner has engaged in a potentially destructive act, to inhibit impulses to react destructively and instead react constructively. Studies 1 and 2 demonstrated that accommodation is lower under conditions of reduced social concern and lower interdependence. Studies 3,4, and 5 revealed that accommodation is associated with greater satis- faction, commitment, investment size, centrality of relationship, psychological femininity, and partner perspective taking and with poorer quality alternatives. Commitment plays a fairly strong role in mediating willingness to accommodate. Study 6 showed that couple functioning is asso- ciated with greater joint and mutual tendencies to inhibit destructive reactions. Study 6 also demon- strated that self-reports of accommodation are related to relevant behavioral measures. All partners in close relationships eventually behave badly. It is inevitable that in responding to the irritations and dissatisfac- tions of everyday life, one or the other partner eventually will engage in a potentially destructive act (e.g., being thoughtless, yelling at the partner, or not spending adequate time at home). How are people likely to react to such breaches of good behav- ior? Are they likely to exacerbate the problem by reacting de- structively in turn, or are they more likely to soothe ruffled feelings by reacting constructively? What makes them more willing to react constructively and inhibit destructive impulses? Do partners typically share equally in dealing with destructive content? Does feeling less involved than the partner lead to reduced willingness to react constructively? Our work ad- dresses such questions, and concerns a phenomenon that we term accommodation.' Accommodation refers to an individ- ual's willingness, when a partner has engaged in a potentially destructive behavior, to (a) inhibit tendencies to react destruc- tively in turn and (b) instead engage in constructive reactions. This article advances a general model of accommodation and presents preliminary empirical evidence regarding this phe- nomenon. We begin with a discussion of the response typology used in our model—the exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect typol- ogy Then we explore the implications of conceptualizing ac- commodation using an interdependen ce analysis (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978). Finally, we advance several hypotheses regard- ing the causes and dynamics of accommodation and review the results of six studies that serve as preliminary empirical tests of our model. Exit, Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect Our theory of accommodation processes emerged from re- search on Rusbult's exit-voice-loyalty-neglect typology of re- sponses to dissatisfaction in close relationships (Rusbult, Zem- brodt, & Gunn, 1982). The typology is based on the writings of Hirschman (1970), who discussed three reactions to decline in formal organizations: (a) exit—actively destroying the relation- ship; (b) voice—actively and constructively attempting to im- prove conditions; and (c) loyalty—passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve. To assess the comprehen- siveness of this model, Rusbult and Zembrodt (1983) performed multidimensional scaling studies of couple responses to dissat- isfaction. They found that Hirschman's categories character- ized responses to dissatisfaction in close relationships, and they
1,019 citations
TL;DR: The empathy-altruism hypothesis as mentioned in this paper claims that empathic emotion evokes truly altruistic motivation, motivation with an ultimate goal of benefiting not the self but the person for whom empathy is felt.
Abstract: Psychologists have long assumed that the motivation for all intentional action, including all action intended to benefit others, is egoistic. People benefit others because, ultimately, to do so benefits themselves. The empathy-altruism hypothesis challenges this assumption. It claims that empathic emotion evokes truly altruistic motivation, motivation with an ultimate goal of benefiting not the self but the person for whom empathy is felt. Logical and psychological distinctions between egoism and altruism are reviewed, providing a conceptualframeworkfor empirical tests for the existence of altruism. Results of empirical tests to date are summarized; these results provide impressive support for the empathy-altruism hypothesis. We conclude that the popular and parsimonious explanation of prosocial motivation in terms of universal egoism must give way to a pluralistic explanation that includes altruism as well as egoism. Implications of such a pluralism are briefly noted, not only for our understanding of prosocial motivation but also for our understanding of human nature and of the emotion-motivation link. We humans devote much time and energy to helping others. We send money to rescue famine victims halfway around the world. We work to save whales. We stay up all night to comfort a friend who has just suffered a broken relationship. We stop on a busy highway to help a stranded motorist change a flat.
1,015 citations