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Interreligious Marriage in Bangladesh: From Human Rights Perspective

20 Oct 2016-The Journal of Education, Culture, and Society (Science Publishing Group)-Vol. 1, Iss: 2, pp 44
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that the prohibition of inter-relational marriage is contradictory to the universal human rights that maintain every human being has a right to build a family regardless of religious consideration.
Abstract: One of the important rights for human beings is freedom to marriage and religion as stipulated not only in the United Nation Declaration of Human Rights but also in Bangladesh Constitution. However, in some cases, this right cannot work smoothly within religious traditions that since very beginning seemed to emphasize single religion-based family over family based on pluralistic religions. In some regards Islamic law forbids interreligious marriage, especially a Muslim female with a non-Muslim male and also forbidden by the Hindu religious Rites. Interreligious marriage between Muslim and Hindu is recognized under Special Marriage Act, 1872 in Bangladesh. According to Article 2 of Muslim Marriage Law, 1974, “Marriage is legitimate, if it has performed in accordance with the religion and belief of each party”. This article discusses the right of interreligious marriage with the light of human right perspective and supported by the other laws. Meanwhile, the materials used in this article are primarily based on Muslim and Hindu religious rules-regulations and Marriage laws relevance to this issue. From this perspective this article argues that prohibition of interreligious marriage is contradictory to the universal human rights that maintain every human being has a right to build a family regardless of religious consideration. Where marriage is constitute in the life of two human beings not in religions.

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International Journal of Education, Culture and Society
2016; 1(2): 44-51
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ijecs
doi: 10.11648/j.ijecs.20160102.13
Interreligious Marriage in Bangladesh: From Human Rights
Perspective
Md. Kamruzzaman
1, 2, 3
1
School of Victimology and Restorative Justice, Institute of Social Welfare and Research, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
2
School of Criminology and Police Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Tangail, Bangladesh
3
School of Law, National University, Gazipur, Bangladesh
Email address:
shohag.mbstu.cps@gmail.com
To cite this article:
Md. Kamruzzaman. Interreligious Marriage in Bangladesh: From Human Rights Perspective. International Journal of Education, Culture
and Society. Vol. 1, No. 2, 2016, pp. 44-51. doi: 10.11648/j.ijecs.20160102.13
Received: August 24, 2016; Accepted: September 8, 2016; Published: September 28, 2016
Abstract:
One of the important rights for human beings is freedom to marriage and religion as stipulated not only in the
United Nation Declaration of Human Rights but also in Bangladesh Constitution. However, in some cases, this right cannot
work smoothly within religious traditions that since very beginning seemed to emphasize single religion-based family over
family based on pluralistic religions. In some regards Islamic law forbids interreligious marriage, especially a Muslim female
with a non-Muslim male and also forbidden by the Hindu religious Rites. Interreligious marriage between Muslim and Hindu
is recognized under Special Marriage Act, 1872 in Bangladesh. According to Article 2 of Muslim Marriage Law, 1974,
“Marriage is legitimate, if it has performed in accordance with the religion and belief of each party”. This article discusses the
right of interreligious marriage with the light of human right perspective and supported by the other laws. Meanwhile, the
materials used in this article are primarily based on Muslim and Hindu religious rules-regulations and Marriage laws relevance
to this issue. From this perspective this article argues that prohibition of interreligious marriage is contradictory to the universal
human rights that maintain every human being has a right to build a family regardless of religious consideration. Where
marriage is constitute in the life of two human beings not in religions.
Keywords:
Interreligious Marriage, Human Rights, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Marriage Laws
1. Introduction
Marriage is a social amalgamation or legal contract for
human beings. According to Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, 1948, “Men and women of full age, without any
limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right
to marry and to found a family”. They are entitled to equal
rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution
(Article-16) and Bangladesh Constitution, 1972 “every
citizen has the right to profess, practice or propagate any
religion” (Article-41) but this is hardly practiced in
Bangladesh. For religious and social reservations still
Interreligious marriage is treated as Cultural-lag in our
society.
As a result couples of Interreligious Marriage and their
family are victimized and isolated from the society. In so far
Marriage is not only rituals but also social traditions, cultures
and customs of all over the world for all religion. Gillin and
Gillin (1981) said, “Marriage is a socially approved way of
establishing a family of procreation”. Westermarck (1984)
remarked, “Marriage is rooted in the family rather than the
family in the marriage” (Schafer, 1998). Marriage
relationship is one of the fundamental aspects of human
relationship. But sometimes the practices and implications of
marriage are not socially approved or legal. There are various
races, religious propaganda, rules and regulations despite
these marriage is an essential ritual of all races all over the
world. It has different implications in different cultures and
religions [1].
Though marriage is an essential part of human beings but
creates various problems regarding with marriage such as
caste, race, and dower. It deemed that this problem is more
acute than other familial issues. Inter-religious Marriage
sometimes regard as imperfect or irregular marriage not only
destructs the conjugal life but also the future of their
offspring and family members. The problem associated with
inter-religious marriage and their victimization is non-
negotiable because of social reservations. In some regards

International Journal of Education, Culture and Society 2016; 1(2): 44-51 45
there are external solutions but internal agitation is forever.
Where husband and wife remain through thick and thin, they
blame each other and burning alive before death [2]. Though
the practice of Inter-religious marriage is not new in
Bangladesh but in the field of academic research it is
completely new concept. In Bangladesh there are some
sociological research regarding Cross-cultural Family
Relationship and Cross-cultural Marriage Relationship [3]
and legal analysis of Inter-religious Marriage [4] but in the
field of criminological research there are no single study with
the view of human rights perspectives and victimizations of
Inter-religious Marriage.
Some cultures accept Inter-religious marriages (Muslim,
Hindu and Christian) more easily than others. In some parts
of Africa it is much more acceptable than in most
communities of the Middle East or the Indian Subcontinent.
Inter-religious marriage in the United States has been fully
legal in all U.S. states since the 1967 Supreme Court decision
that deemed anti-miscegenation laws unconstitutional, with
many states choosing to legalize interracial marriage at much
earlier dates. Anti-miscegenation laws have played a large
role in defining racial identity and enforcing the racial
hierarchy. The United States has many ethnic and racial
groups, and interracial marriage is fairly common among
most of them. Interracial marriages increased from 2% of
married couples in 1970 to 7% in 2005and 8.4% in 2010. The
2010 Pew Research Center Report (U.S. Census Bureau's
2010 American Community Survey) found that record 15.1%
of all new marriages in the United States were between
spouses of a different race or ethnicity from one another. The
Indian subcontinent has a long history of Inter-religious
marriage dating back to ancient history. Various groups of
people have been intermarrying for millennia in South Asia,
and it was particularly common in the northwestern and
northeastern parts of the subcontinent [4]. In Bangladesh
Marriages between people from different religions are
recognized under the Special Marriages Act, 1872 [3].
In Bangladesh Marriages are governed by Muslim
Marriage Act, 1974, Hindu Marriage Act, 1956, Christian
Marriage Act, 1872 and Special Marriage Act, 1872(for inter-
religious marriage). Despite these Inter-religious marriage is
an ill practice of Bangladesh forbidden by the Hindu
religious rites also ashes the life of husbands and wives. In
some regards it is recognized by the Muslim laws and values
but causes a great adverse impact in the life of Hindu family.
Inter-religious, inter-faith or mixed marriage call it by any
name a cross-religion marriage is a reality of life across the
globe. With an opening world and ever-expanding liberal
views regarding religious injunctions, the number of such
marriages is growing fast. Removal of long-standing legal
barriers and acceptance of formal validity of such marriages
by many countries of the world have, perhaps, contributed to
the rise of such marriages. In Bangladesh, although growth of
inter-religious marriages is not high, such marriages are not
insignificant in number either. Couples contracting inter-
religious marriage can be found in our neighborhood, among
friends, relatives or acquaintances. Surprisingly, they contract
such marriages in a state of legal vacuum.
In undivided India, British rulers enacted a law, namely,
the Special Marriages Act of 1872, conditionally allowing
inter-religious marriage. One of the serious conditions of this
law was that the parties to an Inter-religious Marriage must
renounce their religion before contracting such a marriage.
Moreover, this law is unclear, inadequate and full of
ambiguity, leaving many of the important legal questions
relating to Inter-religious Marriage unanswered. Surprisingly,
judicial decisions are also scanty in this matter. Thus, legal
issues involving Inter-religious Marriage are left in a
convoluted and grey state in spite of its wider legal
ramifications, not only for the parties to such marriage but
also for their issues, successors, families, near relatives and
the community at large. Being an iconoclastic affair, Inter-
religious Marriage parties suffer from some inherent
difficulties in Bangladesh, such as, social barriers, cultural
disfavors and religious restrictions [3].
Marriages between people from different religions are
specifically recognized in Bangladeshi law under the Special
Marriage Act no 3 of 1872 and such marriages are readily
accepted in Bangladesh. Mixed marriages can present
problems, but the mix is not restricted to religion. Sunni/Shia,
rich/poor, educated/uneducated marriages can encounter
resistance, but this resistance begins in the family. If the
family accepts a marriage, so will the community. Such
resistance is much more likely to be encountered at the
village level than in cities and towns, where mixed marriages
are more frequent.
But this relation causes serious victimization in lower
socio-economic class people. People in mixed marriages
sometimes, but not always, encounter various forms of non-
violent harassment from their families and peers. As a rule,
this harassment tends to be more common among uneducated
and illiterate people, regardless of where they live. The
government has no policy of involving itself in, or condoning,
such harassment.
In the absence of any statutory recognition the spouses of
such marriages and their offspring may face various legal
difficulties in respect of legitimacy of children, inheritance,
adoption, right of maintenance, etc. In order to remove all the
difficulties it is felt expedient that marriages among all the
above classes should be given statutory recognition to uphold
their rights. This paper deals with the inter-religious marriage
between Muslim and non-Muslim according to human right
perspective.
2
.
Materials and Methods
To deal with the issues of Interreligious Marriage, this
article draws greatly upon the secondary materials consisting
of the Muslim Marriage Law, 1974, Hindu Marriage Law,
1956, Hindu Marriage Validity Act, 2001and Special
Marriage Act, 1872. From the human rights perspectives this
article uses The People’s Republic of Bangladesh
Constitution, 1972, The Geneva Convention on the Universal
Declaration of the Human Rights, 1948, The United Nations

46 Md. Kamruzzaman: Interreligious Marriage in Bangladesh: From Human Rights Perspective
Commission for Human Rights, 1993 and The International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966. In terms of
method, this article utilizes thematic analysis as a qualitative
study.
3. Religious and Legal Explanation of
Interreligious Marriage in Bangladesh
Marriage is a socially or ritually recognized union
governed by a state, an organization, or a religious authority.
There are very rituals and laws regarding on marriage
depending on religions. Basically in Bangladesh, Muslim
Marriage Act, 1974, Hindu Marriage Act, 1956 and Special
Marriage Act, 1872 are followed. Special Marriage Act is
recognized for Inter-religious marriage. Civil marriage is a
marriage without religious content carried out by a
government institution in accordance with marriage laws of
the jurisdiction, and recognized as creating the rights and
obligations intrinsic to matrimony.
In Bangladesh, Inter-religious marriage neither socially
accepted nor the couples are welcomed either Hindu or
Muslim family. But depending on some circumstance it is
recognized in Muslim society. Some provisions regarding
Inter-religious marriage in Muslim and Hindu family are
given below
3.1. Muslim Law Principles on Interreligious Marriage
The genesis of the Muslim law principles on IRM can be
found in the following verses of the holy Quran:
(1) “And do not marry idolatress till they believe (Allah);
and indeed a slave Muslim woman isbetter than a
(free) idolatress, even though shepleases you. And
give not your daughters inmarriage to idolaters till
they believe (in Allahalone); and verily a believing
slave is betterthan a (free) idolater, even though he
pleases you. Those (idolaters and idolatresses) invite
you to the Fire, but Allah invites you to the Paradise
and unto Forgiveness by His grace, and thus makes
His Ayaat (lessons, signs etc.) clear to mankind that
hopefully they may remember” [The Holy Quran,
Verse-2:221]
(2) According to Article 2 of Muslim Marriage Law,
1974“Marriage is legitimate, if it has performed in
accordance with the religion and belief of each
party”.
From the two assumptions Inter-religious marriage is valid
in Muslim rituals between Muslim and Non Muslim If the
non-Muslim party converts, then the couple can marry under
the Muslim Marriages Act.
3.2. Hindu Law Principles on Interreligious Marriage
According to Hindu Religious rules and regulations Inter-
religious marriage is an anti-social, punitive, unscriptural,
maltreated and hindered work and in the long run must
hellish sufferings. The practice of Inter-religious marriage is
a forbidden work measured by the Hindu Shastrai Pandits
from the early civilization to contemporary society. Hindus,
Brahmos, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs and their different
castes, sub-castes and sects are governed by the existing
principles of Hindu law. But in matters of marriage amongst
them this customary law has so far prohibited intermarriage.
According to the Hindu Marriage Validity Act, 2001 article
3 postulates
“Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for
the time being in force or in any text, rule or interpretation
of Hindu law or in any custom or usage, no marriage
between Hindus shall be deemed to be invalid or ever to
have been invalid by reason only of the fact that the
parties thereto belonged to different religions, castes, sub
castes or sects”.
3.3. The Special Marriage Act 1872: An Explanation of the
Existing Legal Framework
Marriages between people from different religions are
recognized under the Special Marriages Act of 1872. Two
marriage acts for Interreligious Marriage exist in Bangladesh.
Generally, a non-Muslim wishing to marry a Muslim is
required to convert to Islam and then the pair can be wed
under the Muslim Marriages Act. However, if the non-
Muslim party declines to convert to Islam, the marriage may
take place under the Special Marriages Act. This Act was
enacted during the British colonial era specifically for inter-
caste and inter-faith couples. Marriages under the Special
Marriages Act are registered before the Metropolitan
Magistrate, to whom the inter-faith couple declares, We do
not follow any particular religious denomination and
therefore want to marry each other before the Metropolitan
Magistrate”. The Magistrate then solemnizes the marriage
and registers it on a standardized Registration Form. There
are no statistics or data on the impact of mixed religious
marriages.
During British rule in Indian sub-continent, the Special
Marriages Act, 1872 was enacted to let people contract Inter-
religious Marriage transcending personal law restrictions.
Although this law primarily paved the way for Inter-religious
Marriage parties to enter into a valid marriage, but it did not
provide a solution to all marriage related legal issues.
3.3.1. Short and In-ExhaustiveLaw
The law contains only 26 sections and does not cover all
legal issues that the Inter-religious Marriage parties and
others may face because of the Inter-religious Marriage.
Although it has provisions for divorce, succession,
coparcenaries status and adoption, it contains no provision on
maintenance of wife and children, restitution of conjugal
rights, legitimacy of children, custody and guardianship of
children etc.
As this law is supposed to be an alternative to a full-
fledged personal law system covering the whole gamut of
conjugal issues, it should have contained enough provisions
on all conjugal and other related legal issues Inter-religious
Marriage parties are supposed to face.

International Journal of Education, Culture and Society 2016; 1(2): 44-51 47
3.3.2. Conservative Law
The law was enacted in 1872 by British rulers in order to
“legalize,” as the Preamble goes, “certain marriages the
validity of which is doubtful.” The law made room for Inter-
religious Marriage parties to contract a valid marriage
without hurting religious susceptibilities of the faith-groups.
Section 10 provides that the parties shall sign a declaration in
the form contained in the second schedule of the Act
renouncing their former faith. Column 2 of the schedule
contains the pro-forma of renunciation as, “I (so and so) do
not profess the Christian, Jewish, Hindu, Muslim, Parsi,
Buddhist, Sikh or Jaina religion.” In a 1966 case, the
Supreme Court held that renunciation of religion is the
necessary condition for a marriageunder the Act, and it
declared the marriage that was in issue in that case as null
and void as neither party renounced their religion in practice.
The reason for making such a provision is not hard to
understand. Because of the intense religious feelings among
the people of the Indian sub-continent at the time of enacting
this law, the rulers thought that this “provision of
renunciation” may pacify the anger of the concerned faith
groups who may be hurt by the Inter-religious Marriage law.
The formula was that because of this provision, as the parties
were now out of religion by renunciation and then contracted
Inter-religious Marriage, faith groups had nothing to say.
Perhaps it was a correct appreciation of the religious sense of
the people of the subcontinent.
Because of the renunciation, parties to Inter-religious
Marriage are excluded from succession to the property of
their ancestors, when they Christian, Jewish, Muslims and
Parsis (section 23 & 24). It causes severance from the
undivided family in case of Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and
Christians (section 22); they also lose their right to adoption
under their concerned personal laws (section 25).
Of course, renunciation provision is not applicable to
parties to an, Inter-religious Marriage when both profess one
or the other of the Hindu, Buddhist, Sikh or Jaina religion.
Perhaps because of the insignificant differences in-between
these religions, they are absolved from the renunciation
provision in this case. This conservative law, although
enacted by British rulers 138 years back balancing their
openness to Inter-religious Marriage and their long-term
political interest in the sub-continent, still endures in
Bangladesh.
3.3.3. Ambiguous Law
Section 11 holds that an Inter-religious Marriage under this
law may be solemnized ‘in any form’. It is not defined what
the term means. Although the law is silent about what would
be the religion of the children of an IRM, Section 18 holds
that if a child of an Inter-religious Marriage marries under
this Act, s/he shall be deemed to be “subject to the law to
which their fathers were subject” as to the prohibition of
marriages by reason of consanguinity and affinity. Whereas
their father himself is no more subject to the law, why the
issues are so bound is not clear .Section 23 provides that
when the IRM is between parties each of whom professes
one or the other of the Hindu, Buddhist, Sikh or Jaina
religion, they will have the same rights and subject to the
same disabilities like a person to whom the Caste Disabilities
Removal Act 1850 applies. Section 24 holds that succession
to the property of an Inter-religious Marriage party
professing the above-mentioned religion shall be regulated
by the provisions of the Succession Act, 1925. But the
Special Marriages Act is absolutely silent about the
succession by the parties to an Inter-religious Marriage when
they do not belong to above mentioned religions. Nor does it
say anything about the succession to the property of such a
party.
3.3.4. Procedural Hardship
Section 11 of the Act holds that the marriage shall be
solemnized in the presence of the Registrar and of three
witnesses who signed the declaration of second schedule i.e.
the declaration of renunciation of religion by the parties. A
marriage in absence of the Registrar is void. So, the Registrar
is a key person for conducting such a marriage.
Section 3 provides for the appointment of the Registrar. It
holds that the Government may appoint one or more
Registrars under this Act, either by name or as holding any
office for the time being, for any territory subject to its
administration. In practice, the government has so far
appointed only one Registrar under this Act for the whole
territory of Bangladesh. His office is located in the capital of
Bangladesh. Thus, the parties to an Inter-religious Marriage
must travel all the way to Dhaka from any corner of the
country to contract a valid marriage under this Act. Whereas
there are thousands of traditional marriage registrars within a
district, it is unreasonable not to appoint at least one special
marriage registrar for each district.
3.3.5. Out-Dated Law
The Special Marriages Act was enacted in 1872. Since
then, the world has undergone massive changes: the enactors
and several of their generation have gone, the British quitted
from the subcontinent, we became independent and
entrenched secularism in the Constitution of Bangladesh as
our mantra. But the Act still survives; survives with its
renunciation provision, survives with its ambiguities,
survives with a vacuum as to succession, maintenance,
custody and guardianship of children. India changed this law
back in 1954, and has been continually refining it. In a recent
report by the Law Commission of India, they went so far as
to say that the word “special” needs to be reconsidered. They
argued, “It projects such marriages as unusual and in case of
Bangladesh, the reform of the Special Marriages Act of 1872
is long overdue.
3.4. The Special Marriages Act 1954: An Alternative
Explanation of the Indian Counterpart
Like Bangladesh, the Special Marriages Act of 1872 was
also applicable to India. Repealing the law, they enacted the
Special Marriages Act of 1954 (Act no. 43 of 1954) for
covering Inter-religious Marriage. It is a progressive law, and

48 Md. Kamruzzaman: Interreligious Marriage in Bangladesh: From Human Rights Perspective
remedied many of the shortcomings of the Act of 1872. It can
summarize the improvements in 1954 Act as follows.
3.4.1. Exhaustive Law
The Special Marriages Act of 1954 is a self-contained and
exhaustive law. Covered in 51 sections, it addresses all
marriage related issues, i.e. formalities of marriage,
registration of marriage, consequences of marriage under this
Act, restitution of conjugal rights, judicial separation, nullity
of marriage and divorce, legitimacy of children, maintenance
of wife and children, custody of children and succession.
Whether all the provisions are ideally correct or not is a
different question, but it certainly brought all the marital
issues within a single law. So, parties to Inter-religious
Marriage do not have to remain in uncertainty regarding the
legal status of their marriage and its legal consequences.
3.4.2. Progressive Law
The Act allows an IRM between “any two persons”
(section 4). Religion is not at all in issue for the validity of an
Inter-religious Marriage under this law, as the Law
Commission of India aptly remarks— Any person,
whichever religion he or she professes, may marry under its
provisions either within his or her community or in a
community other than his or her own.”30 So, there is no
question of renunciation of religion under this law. Parties to
an Inter-religious Marriage can retain their own particular
religion while contracting a marriage under this law.
3.4.3. Refined and Well-Defined Law
The SMA, 1954 has clarified many ambiguities that
existed in the Act of 1872. Section 21 of the Act provides
that— “Notwithstanding any restrictions contained in the
Indian Succession Act, 1925 with respect to its application to
members of certain communities, succession to the property
of any person whose marriage is solemnized under this Act
and to the property of the issue of such marriage shall be
regulated by the provisions of the said Act.” Under this law,
if an Inter-religious Marriage party dies, his property will be
distributed under the Succession Act, 1925. Of course, the
Act of 1954 is silent about the succession by an Inter-
religious Marriage party from their ancestors if s/he is
Muslim, Christian, Jewish or Parsi. In case of Hindu,
Buddhist, Sikh and Jaina, Section 19 holds that they will
have the same rights to succession subject to the provisions
of the Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850. So although the
Special Marriage Act, 1954 refined some provisions, it has its
own shortcomings.
However, the Act of 1954 defined and made provisions on
almost all marital legal issues. It also indicated, in Chapter
VII, the appropriate court to hear any legal issues under the
Act, and prescribed the procedure to be followed by it.
4. Inter-ReligiousMarriage from Human
Rights Perspectives
Guarantees of religious liberty and respect for conscience
and belief are inevitably found in the constitutional orders of
liberal democratic societies and in international and regional
human rights instruments.
In particular, Article 18 of the Universal Declaration on
Human Rights of 1948 provides that
“Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience
and religion; this right includes freedom to change his
religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in
community with others and in public or private, to
manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice,
worship and observance”.
A fuller formulation (which includes a reference to
education, but excludes explicit recognition of the right to
change religious belief) is found in Article 18 of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966
“Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought,
conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom
to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice, and
freedom, either individually or in community with others
and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief
in worship, observance, practice and teaching”.
“No one shall be subject to coercion which would impair
his freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his
choice”.
The UNCHR issued a General Comment on this Article in
1993
“The Committee observes that the freedom to 'have or to
adopt' a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom
to choose a religion or belief, including the right to
replace one's current religion or belief with another or to
adopt atheistic views (Article 18.2) bars coercion that
would impair the right to have or adopt a religion or belief,
including the use of threat of physical force or penal
sanctions to compel believers or non-believers to adhere
to their religious beliefs and congregations, to recant their
religion or belief or to convert.”
From the Bangladesh Constitution, 1972,
“Every citizen has the right to profess, practice or
propagate any religion (Article-41)”.
According to Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
1948
“Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to
race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and
to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to
marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution (Article-
16)”.
In the European Convention on Human Rights, the key
guarantees providing protection for freedom of thought,
conscience and religion or belief are found in
Article 9 provides that
“Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience
and religion; this right includes freedom to change his
religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in
community with others and in public or private, to
manifest his religion or belief, in worship, teaching,
practice and observance”.
Such guarantees are found in other instruments for

Citations
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Journal Article
TL;DR: Ward as discussed by the authors reviewed the first three volumes together in this journal (ATR 82:1, pp. 181-189), under the title "An Anglican Magnum Opus," and suggested that the fourth volume would need to examine the nature of religious community and the means of human participation in the divine.
Abstract: Religion and Community. By Keith Ward. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. 366 pp. $72.00 (cloth); $19.95 (paper). With this volume the Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford brings his quartet of comparative theology to a successful conclusion. When I reviewed the first three volumes together in this journal (ATR 82:1, pp. 181-189), under the title "An Anglican Magnum Opus," I suggested that the fourth volume would need to examine the nature of religious community and the means of human participation in the divine: "Comparative ecclesiology must be the next frontier." Little did I know that by then the present work must have been nearly finished. Whatever we may think about either Ward's comparative method or his substantive conclusions, it remains an extraordinary achievement to have written and published four major studies of this quality in less than a decade. The introduction recognises that religions become embodied in social forms of life. I have a suspicion that Ward assumes that religions are basically ideas that become clothed with social forms. There is some ambivalence as to whether he is studying religions (which one might say are social forms) or theologies (which are components of religions). At any rate, his main interest is in the ethical vision that lies at the heart of religions. The ethical is to be the guiding thread of this study. Thus the Christian Church is seen as "a transformative community living by the power of the Spirit of Christ." But all human institutions, including the churches, are fragile, fallible and liable to corruption. Religion is not intrinsically ennobling of human nature, but granted moral vigilance it may become so. The combination of diversity and tolerance can provide safeguards. The bulk of the book is divided into three roughly equal parts. The first is a descriptive, phenomenological account of Judaism, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism. The secular state is considered alongside the four world faiths as an ideology of our time. Individual religious commitment and public tolerance can reinforce each other, as in the United States, provided that the state stands back. Ward seems to advocate a secular state (while noting that the only fully secular state in Europe is France-and even that needs to be qualified), provided it encourages freely chosen religious commitment (p. 127). I am unhappy with Ward's drift here. A state that actually encourages religious commitment, even of various kinds, does not qualify as secular. A secular state must, at least tacitly, reinforce secularity and secularism. On the other hand, it is arguable that the idea of a state that is completely neutral about religious values is an incoherent concept. Part two considers the Christian Church as a fourfold community: teaching, charismatic, sacramental and moral. On the doctrinal authority of the Church Ward comes clean as a "liberal Protestant" (p. 148). The Church of the New Testament was not the guardian of unchanging formulae. …

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Dissertation
01 Jan 2016
TL;DR: In this article, a Doctor of Philosophy in Religion and Social Transformation is presented. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 2016, and University of South Africa.
Abstract: Doctor of Philosophy in Religion and Social Transformation. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 2016.

6 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors found that the most important challenge of restorative justice in Bangladesh is the huge backlog of cases, relative ignorance and lack of confidence and legal awareness of the service seekers and providers, lack of monitoring and supervision of the court activities, negative attitudes and perceptions towards legal institutes and absence of legal aid and support Though the Village Courts have limitations and drawbacks but still it is playing an important role in the settlements disputes and maintaining social peace and tranquility in the rural area.
Abstract: Restorative justice is an innovative movement in the field of victimology and criminology The formal judicial system of Bangladesh is very expensive and follows a lengthy procedure for the lack of financial resources and outdated legislation pose Majority of middle class people therefore prefer or rather have no choice but to use the traditional justice mechanisms like restorative justice This study was an effort to find out how restorative justice could be an effective method for dispute resolution to reduce the backlog and future case loads in Bangladesh Besides, the core challenges of successful Restorative Justice and some prevention policies to recover drawbacks of the restorative justice in Bangladesh were also studied As the nature of the research is qualitative in nature, data and information had collected from secondary sources This study found that, the most important challenge of restorative justice in Bangladesh is the huge backlog of cases, relative ignorance and lack of confidence and legal awareness of the service seekers and providers, lack of monitoring and supervision of the court activities, negative attitudes and perceptions towards legal institutes and absence of legal aid and support Though the Village Courts have limitations and drawbacks but still it is playing an important role in the settlements disputes and maintaining social peace and tranquility in the rural area This study argues for the necessary amendments of the village court act, proper monitoring and supervision of the government, resources and preparedness as well as the responsiveness of all stakeholders that can ensure effective restorative justice in Bangladesh

3 citations

DOI
01 Mar 2017
TL;DR: In this article, the authors conducted interviews with 23 police officers at Tangail district in Bangladesh and found that effective police leaders have particular relational strengths that serve to elevate levels of commitment, work satisfaction, and motivation.
Abstract: The objective of the paper is to shed light on police leadership skill by interviewing the police personnel. The study is based on the cases. The case studies are plinth upon interviews with 23 police officers at Tangail district in Bangladesh. The fact is that, there was no women police leader as competent respondent in this study. The results were clear; 100% of the respondents were men. From the case study, I identify some leadership skill which should possessed by police personnel. These are, operational skill, ethical decision making, accountability, honesty, predictability, logic, supportive, approachable, higher level thinker, motivation, creative, taking responsibility, respectful, desire to influence, enthusiastic, selflessness, politically astute, good communicator, team builder and intellectual motivation. It is concluded that effective police leaders have particular relational strengths that serve to elevate levels of commitment, work satisfaction, and motivation. The paper also points out that a police leader can encourage and motivate other police within the department to achieve the goal. The findings provide important preliminary insights into the experiences and beliefs of police supervisors.

1 citations

References
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Book
01 Aug 1993
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss the role of the mass media in social interaction, groups, and social structure in social change in the United States and the global community, including race and ethnic inequalities.
Abstract: Brief Contents 1 Understanding Sociology 2 Sociological Research 3 Culture 4 Socialization and the Life Course 5 Social Interaction, Groups, and Social Structure 6 The Mass Media 7 Deviance and Social Control 8 Stratification and Social Mobility in the United States 9 Global Inequality 10 Racial and Ethnic Inequality 11 Stratification by Gender 12 The Family and Intimate Relationships 13 Religion and Education 14 Government and the Economy 15 Health and the Environment 16 Social Change in the Global Community

207 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors conducted a study on Tangail Sadar upazila at Tangail district in Bangladesh and found that 41.1% respondents were sexually abused, 23.55% tortured by senior co-workers and 35.25% were physically assaulted.
Abstract: The study was conducted on Tangail Sadar upazila at Tangail district in Bangladesh. There were 60% boys and 40% girlstaken for the study applyingconvenience sampling method. According to the study, 32.9% respondents worked in restaurant, 18.8% in industries and households. Results showed that 41.1% respondents were sexually abused, 23.55% tortured by senior co-workers and 35.25% were physically assaulted. There were 42.4% respondents to work 5-8 hours and 30.5% above 8 hours per dayviolating the ILO regulations.

16 citations


"Interreligious Marriage in Banglade..." refers background in this paper

  • ...They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood” and “Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedom set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind” [9-14]....

    [...]

Journal Article
TL;DR: Ward as discussed by the authors reviewed the first three volumes together in this journal (ATR 82:1, pp. 181-189), under the title "An Anglican Magnum Opus," and suggested that the fourth volume would need to examine the nature of religious community and the means of human participation in the divine.
Abstract: Religion and Community. By Keith Ward. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. 366 pp. $72.00 (cloth); $19.95 (paper). With this volume the Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford brings his quartet of comparative theology to a successful conclusion. When I reviewed the first three volumes together in this journal (ATR 82:1, pp. 181-189), under the title "An Anglican Magnum Opus," I suggested that the fourth volume would need to examine the nature of religious community and the means of human participation in the divine: "Comparative ecclesiology must be the next frontier." Little did I know that by then the present work must have been nearly finished. Whatever we may think about either Ward's comparative method or his substantive conclusions, it remains an extraordinary achievement to have written and published four major studies of this quality in less than a decade. The introduction recognises that religions become embodied in social forms of life. I have a suspicion that Ward assumes that religions are basically ideas that become clothed with social forms. There is some ambivalence as to whether he is studying religions (which one might say are social forms) or theologies (which are components of religions). At any rate, his main interest is in the ethical vision that lies at the heart of religions. The ethical is to be the guiding thread of this study. Thus the Christian Church is seen as "a transformative community living by the power of the Spirit of Christ." But all human institutions, including the churches, are fragile, fallible and liable to corruption. Religion is not intrinsically ennobling of human nature, but granted moral vigilance it may become so. The combination of diversity and tolerance can provide safeguards. The bulk of the book is divided into three roughly equal parts. The first is a descriptive, phenomenological account of Judaism, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism. The secular state is considered alongside the four world faiths as an ideology of our time. Individual religious commitment and public tolerance can reinforce each other, as in the United States, provided that the state stands back. Ward seems to advocate a secular state (while noting that the only fully secular state in Europe is France-and even that needs to be qualified), provided it encourages freely chosen religious commitment (p. 127). I am unhappy with Ward's drift here. A state that actually encourages religious commitment, even of various kinds, does not qualify as secular. A secular state must, at least tacitly, reinforce secularity and secularism. On the other hand, it is arguable that the idea of a state that is completely neutral about religious values is an incoherent concept. Part two considers the Christian Church as a fourfold community: teaching, charismatic, sacramental and moral. On the doctrinal authority of the Church Ward comes clean as a "liberal Protestant" (p. 148). The Church of the New Testament was not the guardian of unchanging formulae. …

12 citations


"Interreligious Marriage in Banglade..." refers background in this paper

  • ...It is mentioned earlier that Inter-religious Marriage is socially accepted in the Muslim society [5] but not Hindu culture....

    [...]

Book
29 Jan 2013
TL;DR: In this article, the authors have discussed human rights in Bangladesh and the violation of human rights are higher in all spheres in all the spheres including social, health, education, housing, employment, economic and cultural rights.
Abstract: In this book we have discussed human rights in Bangladesh. Human rights are fundamental rights in a democratic country and every nation of the world must be active for the human rights of all the citizens. In Bangladesh the violation of human rights are higher in all spheres. The social, health, education, housing, employment, economic and cultural rights are considered as human rights and in Bangladesh most of the poor citizens are deprived from these rights. Violation of human rights such as, extrajudicial killings like crossfire and death in custody, abduction, child labor, violence of workers’ rights, violence of woman rights, women and child trafficking, public lynching, death penalty and discriminations on religion minorities and indigenous people are alarming in Bangladesh.

11 citations


"Interreligious Marriage in Banglade..." refers background in this paper

  • ...They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood” and “Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedom set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind” [9-14]....

    [...]

06 Mar 2009
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore and compare marriage relationship, including marital bond development, sexual behavior, and role relationship between Muslim and Santal communities in rural Bangladesh, and recommend that further cross-cultural research should be done on marital power relationship and marital adjustment across the couples' life cycle between the two ethnic communities in Bangladesh.
Abstract: Marriage is a universal social institution through which an adult male and an adult female usually involves in marriage relationship and may perpetuate it to meet their reciprocal sexual, emotional, and material needs across the marital life cycle. Relevant literatures reviewed suggested that most of the studies on marriage relationship between Muslim and Santal communities in Bangladesh were culture-specific. In order to fulfill the knowledge gap purpose of the study was to explore and compare marriage relationship, including marital bond development, sexual behavior, and role relationship between Muslim and Santal communities in rural Bangladesh. For this research purpose 100 couples (70 couples for the Muslim and 30 couples for the Santal) out of 380 couples were randomly selected by cluster sampling procedure from the Kalna village situated in the Tanore Upazila of Rajshahi district, Bangladesh. In so doing in-depth interview method with semi-structural questionnaire: Open and close-ended questions was applied for necessary data collection. The collected data were analyzed by Independent Sample T-test to compare marriage relationship, especially marital bond development, marital sexual behavior and marital role relationship between the communities’ couples. The results of the Independent Sample t test showed that there were significant differences in age at marriage for women, sexual frequency, and role relationships among the couples selected between the communities in rural Bangladesh. This study recommends that further cross-cultural research should be done on marital power relationship and marital adjustment across the couples’ life cycle between the two ethnic communities in Bangladesh.

8 citations

Trending Questions (1)
Islamic law in marriage bangladesh

The paper discusses the prohibition of interreligious marriage in Bangladesh, but it does not specifically mention the details of Islamic law in marriage in Bangladesh.