Investing in Children: Changes in Parental Spending on Children, 1972–2007
TL;DR: Data from the Consumer Expenditure Survey is used to examine how spending changed from the early 1970s to the late 2000s, focusing particularly on inequality in parental investment in children.
Abstract: Parental spending on children is often presumed to be one of the main ways that parents invest in children and a main reason why children from wealthier households are advantaged Yet, although research has tracked changes in the other main form of parental investment-namely, time-there is little research on spending We use data from the Consumer Expenditure Survey to examine how spending changed from the early 1970s to the late 2000s, focusing particularly on inequality in parental investment in children Parental spending increased, as did inequality of investment We also investigate shifts in the composition of spending and linkages to children's characteristics Investment in male and female children changed substantially: households with only female children spent significantly less than parents in households with only male children in the early 1970s; but by the 1990s, spending had equalized; and by the late 2000s, girls appeared to enjoy an advantage Finally, the shape of parental investment over the course of children's lives changed Prior to the 1990s, parents spent most on children in their teen years After the 1990s, however, spending was greatest when children were under the age of 6 and in their mid-20s
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TL;DR: It is concluded that multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys should be considered as a legitimate method for answering the question of why people do not respond to survey questions.
Abstract: 25. Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys. By D. B. Rubin. ISBN 0 471 08705 X. Wiley, Chichester, 1987. 258 pp. £30.25.
3,216 citations
01 Jan 2011
TL;DR: Duncan et al. as discussed by the authors examined whether and how the relationship between family socioeconomic characteristics and academic achievement has changed during the last fifty years and found that the achievement gap between children from high and low-income families is roughly 30 to 40 percent larger among children born in 2001 than among those born twenty-five years earlier.
Abstract: In this chapter I examine whether and how the relationship between family socioeconomic characteristics and academic achievement has changed during the last fifty years. In particular, I investigate the extent to which the rising income inequality of the last four decades has been paralleled by a similar increase in the income achievement gradient. As the income gap between highand low-income families has widened, has the achievement gap between children in highand low-income families also widened? The answer, in brief, is yes. The achievement gap between children from highand lowincome families is roughly 30 to 40 percent larger among children born in 2001 than among those born twenty-five years earlier. In fact, it appears that the income achievement gap has been growing for at least fifty years, though the data are less certain for cohorts of children born before 1970. In this chapter, I describe and discuss these trends in some detail. In addition to the key finding that the income achievement gap appears to have widened substantially, there are a number of other important findings. First, the income achievement gap (defined here as the income difference between a child from a family at the 90th percentile of the family income distribution and a child from a family at the 10th percentile) is now nearly twice as large as the black-white achievement gap. Fifty years ago, in contrast, the black-white gap was one and a half to two times as large as the income gap. Second, as Greg Duncan and Katherine Magnuson note in chapter 3 of this volume, the income achievement gap is large when children enter kindergarten and does not appear to grow (or narrow) appreciably as children progress through school. Third, although rising income inequality may play a role in the growing income achievement gap, it does not appear to be the dominant
1,303 citations
TL;DR: The authors compared public school kindergarten classrooms between 1998 and 2010 using two large, nationally representative data sets and showed substantial changes in each of the five dimensions considered: kindergarten teachers' beliefs about school readiness, time spent on academic and non-academic content, classroom organization, pedagogical approach, and use of standardized assessments.
Abstract: Recent accounts suggest that accountability pressures have trickled down into the early elementary grades and that kindergarten today is characterized by a heightened focus on academic skills and a reduction in opportunities for play. This paper compares public school kindergarten classrooms between 1998 and 2010 using two large, nationally representative data sets. We show substantial changes in each of the five dimensions considered: kindergarten teachers’ beliefs about school readiness, time spent on academic and nonacademic content, classroom organization, pedagogical approach, and use of standardized assessments. Kindergarten teachers in the later period held far higher academic expectations for children both prior to kindergarten entry and during the kindergarten year. They devoted more time to advanced literacy and math content, teacher-directed instruction, and assessment and substantially less time to art, music, science, and child-selected activities.
417 citations
Cites background from "Investing in Children: Changes in P..."
...…in parental investments in their young children’s learning as well as heightened pressure among some parents to give young children an academic “edge” (Bassok, Lee, Reardon, & Waldfogel, 2015; Bassok & Reardon, 2013; Kornrich & Furstenberg, 2013; Otterman, 2009; Ramey & Ramey, 2010; Reardon, 2011)....
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Journal Article•
TL;DR: For example, this article found that low-income students as a group have performed less well than high-income individuals on most measures of academic success. But no research had systematically investigated whether these income-related achievement gaps have narrowed or widened over time.
Abstract: Historically, low-income students as a group have performed less well than high-income students on most measures of academic success—including standardized test scores, grades, high school completion rates, and college enrollment and completion rates. Countless studies have documented these disparities and investigated the many underlying reasons for them. But no research had systematically investigated whether these incomerelated achievement gaps have narrowed or widened over time.
365 citations
DOI•
01 Feb 2013
TL;DR: The importance of wealth plays in weathering emergencies and helping families move along a path toward long-term financial security and opportunity was highlighted in this paper, where the authors highlighted the importance of having a financial cushion also provides a measure of security when a job loss or other crisis strikes.
Abstract: All families need wealth to be economically secure and create opportunities for the next generation. Wealth what we own minus what we owe—allows families to move forward by moving to better and safer neighborhoods, investing in businesses, saving for retirement, and supporting their children’s college aspirations. Having a financial cushion also provides a measure of security when a job loss or other crisis strikes. The Great Recession of 2007-2009 devastated the wealth of all families except for those with the most. The unprecedented wealth destruction during that period, accompanied by long-term high unemployment, underscores the critical importance wealth plays in weathering emergencies and helping families move along a path toward long-term financial security and opportunity.
286 citations
References
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Book•
01 Jan 1979
TL;DR: In this article, a social critic of the judgement of taste is presented, and a "vulgar" critic of 'pure' criticiques is proposed to counter this critique.
Abstract: Preface to the English-Language Edition Introduction Part 1: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste 1. The Aristocracy of Culture Part 2: The Economy of Practices 2. The Social Space and its Transformations 3. The Habitus and the Space of Life-Styles 4. The Dynamics of Fields Part 3: Class Tastes and Life-Styles 5. The Sense of Distinction 6. Cultural Good Will 7. The Choice of the Necessary 8. Culture and Politics Conclusion: Classes and Classifications Postscript: Towards a 'Vulgar' Critique of 'Pure' Critiques Appendices Notes Credits Index
23,806 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1987
TL;DR: In this article, a survey of drinking behavior among men of retirement age was conducted and the results showed that the majority of the participants reported that they did not receive any benefits from the Social Security Administration.
Abstract: Tables and Figures. Glossary. 1. Introduction. 1.1 Overview. 1.2 Examples of Surveys with Nonresponse. 1.3 Properly Handling Nonresponse. 1.4 Single Imputation. 1.5 Multiple Imputation. 1.6 Numerical Example Using Multiple Imputation. 1.7 Guidance for the Reader. 2. Statistical Background. 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Variables in the Finite Population. 2.3 Probability Distributions and Related Calculations. 2.4 Probability Specifications for Indicator Variables. 2.5 Probability Specifications for (X,Y). 2.6 Bayesian Inference for a Population Quality. 2.7 Interval Estimation. 2.8 Bayesian Procedures for Constructing Interval Estimates, Including Significance Levels and Point Estimates. 2.9 Evaluating the Performance of Procedures. 2.10 Similarity of Bayesian and Randomization--Based Inferences in Many Practical Cases. 3. Underlying Bayesian Theory. 3.1 Introduction and Summary of Repeated--Imputation Inferences. 3.2 Key Results for Analysis When the Multiple Imputations are Repeated Draws from the Posterior Distribution of the Missing Values. 3.3 Inference for Scalar Estimands from a Modest Number of Repeated Completed--Data Means and Variances. 3.4 Significance Levels for Multicomponent Estimands from a Modest Number of Repeated Completed--Data Means and Variance--Covariance Matrices. 3.5 Significance Levels from Repeated Completed--Data Significance Levels. 3.6 Relating the Completed--Data and Completed--Data Posterior Distributions When the Sampling Mechanism is Ignorable. 4. Randomization--Based Evaluations. 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 General Conditions for the Randomization--Validity of Infinite--m Repeated--Imputation Inferences. 4.3Examples of Proper and Improper Imputation Methods in a Simple Case with Ignorable Nonresponse. 4.4 Further Discussion of Proper Imputation Methods. 4.5 The Asymptotic Distibution of (Qm,Um,Bm) for Proper Imputation Methods. 4.6 Evaluations of Finite--m Inferences with Scalar Estimands. 4.7 Evaluation of Significance Levels from the Moment--Based Statistics Dm and Dm with Multicomponent Estimands. 4.8 Evaluation of Significance Levels Based on Repeated Significance Levels. 5. Procedures with Ignorable Nonresponse. 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Creating Imputed Values under an Explicit Model. 5.3 Some Explicit Imputation Models with Univariate YI and Covariates. 5.4 Monotone Patterns of Missingness in Multivariate YI. 5.5 Missing Social Security Benefits in the Current Population Survey. 5.6 Beyond Monotone Missingness. 6. Procedures with Nonignorable Nonresponse. 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Nonignorable Nonresponse with Univariate YI and No XI. 6.3 Formal Tasks with Nonignorable Nonresponse. 6.4 Illustrating Mixture Modeling Using Educational Testing Service Data. 6.5 Illustrating Selection Modeling Using CPS Data. 6.6 Extensions to Surveys with Follow--Ups. 6.7 Follow--Up Response in a Survey of Drinking Behavior Among Men of Retirement Age. References. Author Index. Subject Index. Appendix I. Report Written for the Social Security Administration in 1977. Appendix II. Report Written for the Census Bureau in 1983.
14,574 citations
Book•
15 May 2009
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of investment in education and training on earnings and employment are discussed. But the authors focus on the relationship between age and earnings and do not explore the relation between education and fertility.
Abstract: "Human Capital" is Becker's study of how investment in an individual's education and training is similar to business investments in equipment. Becker looks at the effects of investment in education on earnings and employment, and shows how his theory measures the incentive for such investment, as well as the costs and returns from college and high school education. Another part of the study explores the relation between age and earnings. This edition includes four new chapters, covering recent ideas about human capital, fertility and economic growth, the division of labour, economic considerations within the family, and inequality in earnings.
12,071 citations
Posted Content•
TL;DR: In this paper, the impact of investments in human capital on an individual's potential earnings and psychic income was analyzed, taking into account varying cultures and political regimes, the research indicates that economic earnings tend to be positively correlated to education and skill level.
Abstract: A diverse array of factors may influence both earnings and consumption; however, this work primarily focuses on the impact of investments in human capital upon an individual's potential earnings and psychic income. For this study, investments in human capital include such factors as educational level, on-the-job skills training, health care, migration, and consideration of issues regarding regional prices and income. Taking into account varying cultures and political regimes, the research indicates that economic earnings tend to be positively correlated to education and skill level. Additionally, studies indicate an inverse correlation between education and unemployment. Presents a theoretical overview of the types of human capital and the impact of investment in human capital on earnings and rates of return. Then utilizes empirical data and research to analyze the theoretical issues related to investment in human capital, specifically formal education. Considered are such issues as costs and returns of investments, and social and private gains of individuals. The research compares and contrasts these factors based upon both education and skill level. Areas of future research are identified, including further analysis of issues regarding social gains and differing levels of success across different regions and countries. (AKP)
7,869 citations
Book•
01 Sep 2003
TL;DR: The power and limits of social class are explored in this paper, where the authors present a theory of Bourdieu's theory of the power of social structure and daily life in the organization of daily life.
Abstract: Acknowledgments 1. Concerted Cultivation and the Accomplishment of Natural Growth 2. Social Structure and Daily Life PART I. THE ORGANIZATION OF DAILY LIFE 3. A Hectic Pace of Concerted Cultivation: Garrett Tallinger 4. A Child's Pace: Tyrec Taylor 5. Children's Play Is for Children: Katie Brindle PART II. LANGUAGE USE 6. Developing a Child: Alexander Williams 7. Language as a Conduit of Social Life: Harold McAllister PART III. FAMILIES AND INSTITUTIONS 8. Concerted Cultivation in Organizational Spheres: Stacey Marshall 9. Effort Creates Misery: Melanie Handlon 10. Letting Educators Lead the Way: Wendy Driver 11. Beating with a Belt, Fearing "the School": Little Billy Yanelli 12. The Power and Limits of Social Class Appendix A. Methodology: Enduring Dilemmas in Fieldwork Appendix B. Theory: Understanding the Work of Pierre Bourdieu Appendix C. Supporting Tables Notes Bibliography Index
4,355 citations
"Investing in Children: Changes in P..." refers background in this paper
...Indeed, Lareau (2003) examined class differences in child-rearing and found that middle- and upper-class parents seek structured educational, social, and athletic activities for their children in order to impart them with experiences necessary for a middle-class upbringing....
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