Is friendship akin to kinship
TL;DR: A domain-specific over a domain-general approach to understanding intimate relationships is supported and a number of interesting questions about the modular structure of cognitive and affective processes involved in these relationships are raised.
About: This article is published in Evolution and Human Behavior.The article was published on 2007-09-01 and is currently open access. It has received 125 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Kin recognition & Kinship.
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Journal Article•
TL;DR: The Social Psychology of Groups as discussed by the authors is a seminal work in the field of family studies, where the authors introduced, defined, and illustrated basic concepts in an effort to explain the simplest of social phenomena, the two-person relationship.
Abstract: The Social Psychology of Groups. J. W Thibaut & H. H. Kelley. New York: alley, 1959. The team of Thibaut and Kelley goes back to 1946 when, after serving in different units of the armed services psychology program, the authors joined the Research Center for Group Dynamics, first at M.LT and then at the University of Michigan. Their continued association eventuated in appointments as fellows at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, 19561957. It is during these years that their collaboration resulted in the publication of The Social Psychology of Groups. The book was designed to "bring order and coherence to present-day research in interpersonal relations and group functioning." To accomplish this aim, the authors introduced, defined, and illustrated basic concepts in an effort to explain the simplest of social phenomena, the two-person relationship. These basic principles and concepts were then employed to illuminate larger problems and more complex social relationships and to examine the significance of such concepts as roles, norm, power, group cohesiveness, and status. The lasting legacy of this book is derived from the fact that the concepts and principles discussed therein serve as a foundation for one of the dominant conceptual frameworks in the field of family studies today-the social exchange framework. Specifically, much of our contemporary thinking about the process of interpersonal attraction and about how individuals evaluate their close relationships has been influenced by the theory and concepts introduced in The Social Psychology of Groups. Today, as a result of Thibaut and Kelley, we think of interpersonal attraction as resulting from the unique valence of driving and restraining forces, rewards and costs, subjectively thought to be available from a specific relationship and its competing alternatives. We understand, as well, that relationships are evaluated through complex and subjectively based comparative processes. As a result, when we think about assessing the degree to which individuals are satisfied with their relationships, we take into consideration the fact that individuals differ in terms of the importance they attribute to different aspects of a relationship (e.g., financial security, sexual fulfillment, companionship). We also take into consideration the fact that individuals differ in terms of the levels of rewards and costs that they believe are realistically obtainable and deserved from a relationship. In addition, as a result of Thibaut and Kelley's theoretical focus on the concept of dependence and the interrelationship between attraction and dependence, there has evolved within the field of family studies a deeper appreciation for the complexities and variability found within relationships. Individuals are dependent on their relationships, according to Thibaut and Kelley, when the outcomes derived from the existing relationship exceed those perceived to be available in competing alternatives. Individuals who are highly dependent on their relationships are less likely to act to end their relationships. This dependence and the stability it engenders may or may not be voluntary, depending on the degree to which individuals are attracted to and satisfied with their relationships. When individuals are both attracted to and dependent on their relationships, they can be thought of as voluntarily participating in their relationship. That is, they are likely to commit themselves to the partner and relationship and actively work for its continuance. Thibaut and Kelley termed those relationships characterized by low levels of satisfaction and high levels of dependence "nonvoluntary relationships. …
1,894 citations
TL;DR: This work investigates a 3-domain model of disgust and introduces a new measure of disgust sensitivity, which shows predictable differentiation based on sex, perceived vulnerability to disease, psychopathic tendencies, and Big 5 personality traits.
Abstract: What is the function of disgust? Whereas traditional models have suggested that disgust serves to protect the self or neutralize reminders of our animal nature, an evolutionary perspective suggests that disgust functions to solve 3 qualitatively different adaptive problems related to pathogen avoidance, mate choice, and social interaction. The authors investigated this 3-domain model of disgust across 4 studies and examined how sensitivity to these functional domains relates to individual differences in other psychological constructs. Consistent with their predictions, factor analyses demonstrated that disgust sensitivity partitions into domains related to pathogens, sexuality, and morality. Further, sensitivity to the 3 domains showed predictable differentiation based on sex, perceived vulnerability to disease, psychopathic tendencies, and Big 5 personality traits. In exploring these 3 domains of disgust, the authors introduce a new measure of disgust sensitivity. Appreciation of the functional heterogeneity of disgust has important implications for research on individual differences in disgust sensitivity, emotion, clinical impairments, and neuroscience.
832 citations
Cites background or methods from "Is friendship akin to kinship"
...…of sexual arousal (Koukounas & McCabe, 1997; Vonderheide & Mosher, 1988), and as the prototypical response when individuals are asked to imagine sex with close genetic relatives (Ackerman et al., 2007; Fessler & Navarrete, 2004; Haidt, 2001; Lieberman et al., 2007; Westermarck, 1891/ 1921)....
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...We modeled our item-generation procedures after the methods described by Haidt et al. (1994) in their generation of the original Disgust Scale....
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TL;DR: This work revisits the idea of a motivational hierarchy in light of theoretical developments at the interface of evolutionary biology, anthropology, and psychology and proposes a renovated hierarchy of fundamental motives that serves as both an integrative framework and a generative foundation for future empirical research.
Abstract: Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, proposed in 1943, has been one of the most cognitively contagious ideas in the behavioral sciences. Anticipating later evolutionary views of human motivation and cognition, Maslow viewed human motives as based in innate and universal predispositions. We revisit the idea of a motivational hierarchy in light of theoretical developments at the interface of evolutionary biology, anthropology, and psychology. After considering motives at three different levels of analysis, we argue that the basic foundational structure of the pyramid is worth preserving, but that it should be buttressed with a few architectural extensions. By adding a contemporary design feature, connections between fundamental motives and immediate situational threats and opportunities should be highlighted. By incorporating a classical element, these connections can be strengthened by anchoring the hierarchy of human motives more firmly in the bedrock of modern evolutionary theory. We propose a renovated hierarchy of fundamental motives that serves as both an integrative framework and a generative foundation for future empirical research.
820 citations
TL;DR: It is suggested that in addition to motivating pathogen avoidance, disgust evolved to regulate decisions in the domains of mate choice and morality and is recast into a framework that can generate new lines of empirical and theoretical inquiry.
Abstract: Interest in and research on disgust has surged over the past few decades. The field, however, still lacks a coherent theoretical framework for understanding the evolved function or functions of disgust. Here we present such a framework, emphasizing 2 levels of analysis: that of evolved function and that of information processing. Although there is widespread agreement that disgust evolved to motivate the avoidance of contact with disease-causing organisms, there is no consensus about the functions disgust serves when evoked by acts unrelated to pathogen avoidance. Here we suggest that in addition to motivating pathogen avoidance, disgust evolved to regulate decisions in the domains of mate choice and morality. For each proposed evolved function, we posit distinct information processing systems that integrate function-relevant information and account for the trade-offs required of each disgust system. By refocusing the discussion of disgust on computational mechanisms, we recast prior theorizing on disgust into a framework that can generate new lines of empirical and theoretical inquiry.
565 citations
TL;DR: In studies involving a total of 1,141 participants and nine different samples, it is found that the personal sense of power was coherent within social contexts and was affected not only by sociostructural factors but also by personality variables such as dominance.
Abstract: Scholars who examine the psychological effects of power have often argued that possessing power shapes individual behavior because it instills an elevated sense of power. However, little is known about the personal sense of power because very few studies have examined it empirically. In studies involving a total of 1,141 participants and nine different samples, we found that the personal sense of power was coherent within social contexts; for example, individuals who believed that they can get their way in a group also believed that they can influence fellow group members' attitudes and opinions. The personal sense of power was also moderately consistent across relationships but showed considerable relationship specificity; for example, individuals' personal sense of power vis-a-vis their friend tended to be distinct but moderately related to their personal sense of power vis-a-vis their parent. And the personal sense of power was affected not only by sociostructural factors (e.g., social position, status) but also by personality variables such as dominance.
561 citations
References
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TL;DR: This article found that people form opposite-sex friendships (OSFs) to acquire long-term mates (both sexes), to gain short-term sexual access (men more than women), and to gain physical protection (women more than men).
Abstract: The authors hypothesized that people form opposite-sex friendships (OSFs), in part, to acquire long-term mates (both sexes), to gain short-term sexual access (men more than women), and to gain physical protection (women more than men). In Study 1, men and women evaluated reasons for initiating OSFs, characteristics preferred in an OSF, and reasons for ending OSFs. Study 2 extended the framework to include individual differences in sociosexual orientation. Compared with women, men judged sexual attraction and a desire for sex as more important reasons for initiating OSFs, reported a preference for sexual attractiveness when selecting OSFs, and judged the lack of sex as a more important reason for dissolving OSFs. Women judged physical protection as a more important reason for initiating OSFs and the lack of it as a more important reason for dissolving them. Across sex, people with an unrestricted sexual style were more likely to perceive OSFs as opportunities for sex. Discussion addresses the implications ...
134 citations
"Is friendship akin to kinship" refers background in this paper
...Relative to men, women are less sexually attracted to their opposite-sex friends and less likely to consider potential sexual contact an important precursor to initiation of these friendships (Bleske-Rechek & Buss, 2001)....
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TL;DR: This paper examined third-party reactions to a fictional case of sibling incest, a method paralleling that of Lieberman et al. They found that a history of cosocialization with an opposite-sex individual was associated with increased disgust at, and decreased tolerance of others' incestuous behavior.
129 citations
"Is friendship akin to kinship" refers background in this paper
...Previous research indicates that, within sexual situations, perceived kinship is associated with a strong disgust response (Fessler & Navarrete, 2004; Lieberman et al., 2003)....
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...…to the prospect of sexual intercourse with individuals who are explicitly known to be close kin (although even here women respond more negatively; Fessler & Navarrete, 2004; Lieberman et al., 2003), women may be much more likely than men to also respond negatively to the prospect of sexual…...
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TL;DR: The authors expand Taylor et al.'s evolutionary frame and incorporate several unique aspects of human social dynamics, noting that humans are characterized by extensive paternal investment, and thus men's tending is predicted and observed in some stressful contexts.
Abstract: Taylor and colleagues proposed that women uniquely respond to stressors by tending to children and befriending other women rather than by fighting or fleeing (S. E. Taylor et al., 2000). In this article, the authors expand Taylor et al.'s evolutionary frame and incorporate several unique aspects of human social dynamics. First, humans are characterized by extensive paternal investment, and thus men's tending is predicted and observed in some stressful contexts. Second, the dynamics of women's befriending suggest an evolutionary elaboration of the mechanisms that support reciprocal altruism. Third, coalitional male-male competition indicates that men's befriending is a predicted component of their fight-or-flight response. Finally, men's tending should result in the evolution of female-female competition over this form of parental investment.
127 citations
"Is friendship akin to kinship" refers background in this paper
...Male communal bonds do tend to be strengthened under conditions of group-level competition (Geary & Flinn, 2002; Taylor et al., 2000)....
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...Women and men take somewhat different approaches to social bonding (Geary & Flinn, 2002; Kashima et al., 1995; Taylor et al., 2000)....
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Book•
01 Jan 2002
TL;DR: This book summarizes current research on sex differences in Cognition and outlines some of the main themes that have emerged in the literature over the past decade.
Abstract: Introduction Foreword by Irving E. Seigel Causes, Correlates, and Caveats: Understanding the Development of Sex Differences in Cognition by Diane F. Halpern and Simay Ikier Explanatory Constructs Sexual Selection and Sex Differences in Social Cognition by David C. Geary Hormones, Brain, and Behavior: Putative Biological Contributions to Cognitive Sex Differences by Roslyn Holly Fitch and Heather A. Bimonte Sex Differences in Motivation, Self-Concept, Career Aspiration, and Career Choice: Implications for Cognitive Development by Allan Wigfield, Ann Battle, Lisa Keller, and Jacquelynne S. Eccles Domains of Human Cognition Gender Differences in Language Development by Jean Berko Gleason and Richard Ely Sex Differences in Mathematical Abilities and Achievement by Richard De Lisi and Ann V. McGillicuddy-De Lisi Maximization of Spatial Competence: More Important than Finding the Cause of Sex Differences by Nora S. Newcombe, Lisa Mathason, and Melissa Terlecki Children's Gender Cognitions, the Social Environment, and Sex Differences in Cognitive Domains by Carol Lynn Martin and Lisa M. Dinella Summary and Conclusions Emergent Themes in the Development of Sex Differences in Cognition by Ann V. McGillicuddy-De Lisi and Richard De Lisi Index
124 citations
"Is friendship akin to kinship" refers background in this paper
...…instance, assuming ancestral patrilocality (cf., Pasternak, Ember, & Ember, 1997), the establishment of supportive social alliances with nonkin may have been especially beneficial to women, and this could be facilitated by a psychological inclination to perceive nonkin as kin (Geary, 1998, 2002)....
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TL;DR: This paper integrated psychological predictors of helping intentions and naturally selected tendencies enhancing inclusive fitness for a more comprehensive understanding of altruism, finding that the tendency for reciprocal altruism and kinship were the strongest predictor of rescue intentions.
113 citations
"Is friendship akin to kinship" refers background in this paper
...Interestingly, true kinship also produces unique effects on nepotistic behavior over and above indices of intimacy like empathic concern and felt oneness (Korchmaros & Kenny, 2001; Kruger, 2003)....
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