Issues and challenges facing rechargeable lithium batteries
TL;DR: A brief historical review of the development of lithium-based rechargeable batteries is presented, ongoing research strategies are highlighted, and the challenges that remain regarding the synthesis, characterization, electrochemical performance and safety of these systems are discussed.
Abstract: Technological improvements in rechargeable solid-state batteries are being driven by an ever-increasing demand for portable electronic devices. Lithium-ion batteries are the systems of choice, offering high energy density, flexible and lightweight design, and longer lifespan than comparable battery technologies. We present a brief historical review of the development of lithium-based rechargeable batteries, highlight ongoing research strategies, and discuss the challenges that remain regarding the synthesis, characterization, electrochemical performance and safety of these systems.
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TL;DR: This work has shown that combination of pseudo-capacitive nanomaterials, including oxides, nitrides and polymers, with the latest generation of nanostructured lithium electrodes has brought the energy density of electrochemical capacitors closer to that of batteries.
Abstract: Electrochemical capacitors, also called supercapacitors, store energy using either ion adsorption (electrochemical double layer capacitors) or fast surface redox reactions (pseudo-capacitors). They can complement or replace batteries in electrical energy storage and harvesting applications, when high power delivery or uptake is needed. A notable improvement in performance has been achieved through recent advances in understanding charge storage mechanisms and the development of advanced nanostructured materials. The discovery that ion desolvation occurs in pores smaller than the solvated ions has led to higher capacitance for electrochemical double layer capacitors using carbon electrodes with subnanometre pores, and opened the door to designing high-energy density devices using a variety of electrolytes. Combination of pseudo-capacitive nanomaterials, including oxides, nitrides and polymers, with the latest generation of nanostructured lithium electrodes has brought the energy density of electrochemical capacitors closer to that of batteries. The use of carbon nanotubes has further advanced micro-electrochemical capacitors, enabling flexible and adaptable devices to be made. Mathematical modelling and simulation will be the key to success in designing tomorrow's high-energy and high-power devices.
14,213 citations
Cites background from "Issues and challenges facing rechar..."
...Lithium-ion batteries were introduced in 1990 by Sony, following pioneering work by Whittingham, Scrosati and Armand (see ref...
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TL;DR: The battery systems reviewed here include sodium-sulfur batteries that are commercially available for grid applications, redox-flow batteries that offer low cost, and lithium-ion batteries whose development for commercial electronics and electric vehicles is being applied to grid storage.
Abstract: The increasing interest in energy storage for the grid can be attributed to multiple factors, including the capital costs of managing peak demands, the investments needed for grid reliability, and the integration of renewable energy sources. Although existing energy storage is dominated by pumped hydroelectric, there is the recognition that battery systems can offer a number of high-value opportunities, provided that lower costs can be obtained. The battery systems reviewed here include sodium-sulfur batteries that are commercially available for grid applications, redox-flow batteries that offer low cost, and lithium-ion batteries whose development for commercial electronics and electric vehicles is being applied to grid storage.
11,144 citations
TL;DR: This review describes some recent developments in the discovery of nanoelectrolytes and nanoeLECTrodes for lithium batteries, fuel cells and supercapacitors and the advantages and disadvantages of the nanoscale in materials design for such devices.
Abstract: New materials hold the key to fundamental advances in energy conversion and storage, both of which are vital in order to meet the challenge of global warming and the finite nature of fossil fuels. Nanomaterials in particular offer unique properties or combinations of properties as electrodes and electrolytes in a range of energy devices. This review describes some recent developments in the discovery of nanoelectrolytes and nanoelectrodes for lithium batteries, fuel cells and supercapacitors. The advantages and disadvantages of the nanoscale in materials design for such devices are highlighted.
8,157 citations
TL;DR: The energy that can be stored in Li-air and Li-S cells is compared with Li-ion; the operation of the cells is discussed, as are the significant hurdles that will have to be overcome if such batteries are to succeed.
Abstract: Li-ion batteries have transformed portable electronics and will play a key role in the electrification of transport. However, the highest energy storage possible for Li-ion batteries is insufficient for the long-term needs of society, for example, extended-range electric vehicles. To go beyond the horizon of Li-ion batteries is a formidable challenge; there are few options. Here we consider two: Li-air (O(2)) and Li-S. The energy that can be stored in Li-air (based on aqueous or non-aqueous electrolytes) and Li-S cells is compared with Li-ion; the operation of the cells is discussed, as are the significant hurdles that will have to be overcome if such batteries are to succeed. Fundamental scientific advances in understanding the reactions occurring in the cells as well as new materials are key to overcoming these obstacles. The potential benefits of Li-air and Li-S justify the continued research effort that will be needed.
7,895 citations
TL;DR: The phytochemical properties of Lithium Hexafluoroarsenate and its Derivatives are as follows: 2.2.1.
Abstract: 2.1. Solvents 4307 2.1.1. Propylene Carbonate (PC) 4308 2.1.2. Ethers 4308 2.1.3. Ethylene Carbonate (EC) 4309 2.1.4. Linear Dialkyl Carbonates 4310 2.2. Lithium Salts 4310 2.2.1. Lithium Perchlorate (LiClO4) 4311 2.2.2. Lithium Hexafluoroarsenate (LiAsF6) 4312 2.2.3. Lithium Tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4) 4312 2.2.4. Lithium Trifluoromethanesulfonate (LiTf) 4312 2.2.5. Lithium Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiIm) and Its Derivatives 4313
5,710 citations
References
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the factors that play a role in the selection of appropriate lithium intercalation compounds for rechargeable cells, and show that LiNiO{sub 2}/coke cells have high energy density, long cycle life, excellent high-temperature performance, low self-discharge rates, can be repeatedly discharged to zero volts without damage, and are easily fabricated.
Abstract: Rechargeable cells can be made using two different intercalation compounds, in which the chemical potential of the intercalant differs by several eV, for the electrodes. In this paper, the authors discuss the factors that play a role in the selection of appropriate lithium intercalation compounds for such cells. For ease of cell assembly the cathode should be stable in air when it is fully intercalated, like LiNiO{sub 2}. For the anode, the chemical potential of the intercalated Li should be close to that of Li metal, like it is in Li{sub x}C{sub 6}. The authors discuss the intercalation of Li in LiNiO{sub 2} and then in petroleum coke. Then, the authors show that LiNiO{sub 2}/coke cells have high energy density, long cycle life, excellent high-temperature performance, low self-discharge rates, can be repeatedly discharged to zero volts without damage, and are easily fabricated. In the authors' opinion this type of cell shows far more promise for widespread applications than traditional secondary Li cells using metallic Li anodes.
570 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the development of the first practical plastic rechargeable Li-ion battery was discussed, and the authors compared it with its liquid Li ion counterparts in terms of volumetric energy density, cycle life, power rate, and shape and packaging flexibility.
550 citations
"Issues and challenges facing rechar..." refers methods in this paper
...With the aim of combining the recent commercial success enjoyed by liquid Li-ion batteries with the manufacturing advantages presented by the polymer technology, Bellcore researchers introduced polymeric electrolytes in a liquid Li-ion syste...
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TL;DR: A brief survey of the conductive complexes formed between solvating molecules and metal salts is given in this article, where the elucidation of the special conduction mechanism of these materials have been a challenging emulation for the scientific community.
479 citations
"Issues and challenges facing rechar..." refers background in this paper
...Similarly, the use of a polymer rather than a liquid electrolyte adds further selection criteria linked to the electrochemical stability of the polyme...
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TL;DR: The Li-free thin-film battery with the cell configuration Li diffusion blocking overlayer/Cu/solid lithium electrolyte is activated by in situ plating of metallic Li at the Cu anode current collector during the initial charge.
Abstract: The "Li‐free" thin‐film battery with the cell configuration Li diffusion blocking overlayer/Cu/solid lithium electrolyte is activated by in situ plating of metallic Li at the Cu anode current collector during the initial charge. Electrochemical cycling between 4.2 and 3.0 V is demonstrated over 1000 cycles at or over 500 cycles at . As corroborated by scanning electron microscopy during electrochemical cycling, the overlayer is imperative for a high cycle stability; otherwise the plated Li rapidly develops a detrimental morphology, and the battery loses most of its capacity within a few cycles. The Li‐free thin‐film battery retains the high potential of a Li cell while permitting its fabrication in air without the complications of a metallic Li anode. Thus, the Li‐free thin‐film battery survives solder reflow conditions, simulated by a rapid heating to 250°C for 10 min in air followed by quenching to room temperature, without any signs of degradation. © 2000 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
458 citations
"Issues and challenges facing rechar..." refers background in this paper
...By controlling the uniform Li stripping–plating mechanism, the same authors demonstrated the feasibility of a Li-free, rechargeable, thin-film battery — that is, cells constructed in the discharged state with no Li metal initially presen...
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TL;DR: In this paper, the intermetallic phases in the binary Sn-Fe system, Sn{sub 2}Fe, SnFe, snFe,snfe, Snfe, snfe, and snfe were prepared by mechanical alloying methods or by direct melting.
Abstract: The authors have prepared intermetallic phases and mixtures of such phases in the Sn-Fe-C Gibbs triangle by mechanical alloying methods or by direct melting. This second paper in a three-part series focuses on the intermetallic phases in the binary Sn-Fe system, Sn{sub 2}Fe, SnFe, Sn{sub 2}Fe{sub 3}, and Sn{sub 3}Fe{sub 5}. Using in situ X-ray diffraction and electrochemical methods, the authors study the reversible reaction of Li with these materials. Li/Sn-Fe cells made from annealed powders have reversible capacities of 600, 50, 20 mAh/g, respectively, for Sn{sub 2}Fe, SnFe, Sn{sub 2}Fe{sub 3}, and Sn{sub 3}Fe{sub 5}. Li/Sn-Fe cells made from the same materials, but after high-impact ballmilling, show reversible capacities of 650, 320, 200, and 150 mAh/g. Specific capacities of 804, 676, 582, and 557 mAh/g are expected for Sn{sub 2}Fe, SnFe, Sn{sub 2}Fe{sub 3}, and Sn{sub 3}Fe{sub 5} if all compounds react fully with Li to form Li{sub 4.4}Sn and Fe. In situ X-ray diffraction experiments on the ballmilled materials confirm the formation of /Li{sub 4}Sn during discharge but also show that in the cases of SnFe, Sn{sub 2}Fe{sub 3}, and Sn{sub 3}Fe{sub 5} at least 50% of the starting phase remains unreacted. Structural considerations suggest that as themore » Fe:Sn ratio increases, Fe atoms may form a impenetrable skin on the surface of particles or grains, as Li reacts with the Sn-Fe compounds. This skin prevents the full reaction of the intermetallic with Li, leading to an observed capacity which is lower than expected. High-impact ballmilling reduces particle and grain size, so the effect of the skin is less than for the annealed powders and higher capacities are obtained. As the Fe content in the Sn-Fe intermetallics increases, the cycle life of the materials improves, presumably because there is more Fe per Sn and because the formed Fe and residual starting material act as a matrix to hold the Sn and Li-Sn alloys together during cycling. The authors give an example of a material with a volumetric capacity of 1200 mAh/cm{sup 3} showing stable cycling for over 80 cycles.« less
401 citations
"Issues and challenges facing rechar..." refers methods in this paper
...Besides ATCO, other investigations, such as those pursued by Dahn et al...
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