Land surface processes and Sahel climate
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine the role of land surface-atmosphere interactions in the West African Sahel and their role in the interannual variability of rainfall, and present arguments for the role that land surface feedback in producing these features and reviews research relevant to land surface processes in the region, such as results from the 1992 Hydrologic Atmospheric Pilot Experiment (HAPEX)-Sahel experiment and recent studies on aerosols and on the issue of desertification in the area, a factor implicated by some as a cause of the changes in rainfall.
Abstract: This paper examines the question of land surface-atmosphere interactions in the West African Sahel and their role in the interannual variability of rainfall. In the Sahel, mean rainfall decreased by 25–40% between 1931–1960 and 1968–1997; every year in the 1950s was wet, and nearly every year since 1970 has been anomalously dry. Thus the intensity and multiyear persistence of drought conditions are unusual and perhaps unique features of Sahel climate. This article presents arguments for the role of land surface feedback in producing these features and reviews research relevant to land surface processes in the region, such as results from the 1992 Hydrologic Atmospheric Pilot Experiment (HAPEX)-Sahel experiment and recent studies on aerosols and on the issue of desertification in the region, a factor implicated by some as a cause of the changes in rainfall. Included also is a summary of evidence of feedback on meteorological processes, presented from both model results and observations. The reviewed studies demonstrate numerous ways in which the state of the land surface can influence interactions with the atmosphere. Surface hydrology essentially acts to delay and prolong the effects of meteorological drought. Each evaporative component of the surface water balance has its own timescale, with the presence of vegetation affecting the process both by delaying and prolonging the return of soil moisture to the atmosphere but at the same time accelerating the process through the evaporation of canopy-intercepted water. Hence the vegetation structure, including rooting depth, can modulate the land-atmosphere interaction. Such processes take on particular significance in the Sahel, where there is a high degree of recycling of atmospheric moisture and where the meteorological processes from the scale of boundary layer development to mesoscale disturbance generation are strongly influenced by moisture. Simple models of these feedback processes and their various timescales have demonstrated that the net feedback to the atmosphere is positive for both wet and dry surface anomalies. Hence the role of the surface is to reinforce meteorologically induced changes. Recovery from the dry state is slower than from the wet state, suggesting that dry conditions would tend to persist longer, as is actually observed in the Sahel. These simple models suggest that the surface hydrology locks the system into a drought mode that persists for several years, until the system randomly slips into a persistent wet mode. The hypothesis that desertification in the Sahel might likewise be responsible for the persistent drought is found to be untenable. Rather than a progressive encroachment of the desert onto the savanna, the vegetation cover responds dramatically to interannual fluctuations in rainfall. There is little evidence of large-scale denudation of soils, increase in surface albedo, or reduction of the productivity of the land, although degradation has probably occurred in some areas. There has, however, been a steady buildup of dust in the region over the last half a century. Significant radiative effects of the dust have been demonstrated; therefore the dust has probably influenced large-scale climate. The buildup is probably mainly a result of changes in the land surface that accompanied the shift to drier conditions, but it may have been exacerbated by anthropogenic factors. Complex general circulation models nearly universally underscore the importance of feedback processes in the region. Although it has not been unequivocally demonstrated that the rainfall regime of the Sahel is modulated by surface processes, there is recent observational evidence that this is case.
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TL;DR: Recent studies show that a loss of resilience usually paves the way for a switch to an alternative state, which suggests that strategies for sustainable management of such ecosystems should focus on maintaining resilience.
Abstract: All ecosystems are exposed to gradual changes in climate, nutrient loading, habitat fragmentation or biotic exploitation. Nature is usually assumed to respond to gradual change in a smooth way. However, studies on lakes, coral reefs, oceans, forests and arid lands have shown that smooth change can be interrupted by sudden drastic switches to a contrasting state. Although diverse events can trigger such shifts, recent studies show that a loss of resilience usually paves the way for a switch to an alternative state. This suggests that strategies for sustainable management of such ecosystems should focus on maintaining resilience.
6,213 citations
Cites background from "Land surface processes and Sahel cl..."
...For example, every year since 1970 has been anomalously dry, whereas every year of the 1950s was unusually wet; in other parts of the world, runs of wet or dry years typically do not exceed 2–5 year...
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors provide a synthesis of past research on the role of soil moisture for the climate system, based both on modelling and observational studies, focusing on soil moisture-temperature and soil moistureprecipitation feedbacks, and their possible modifications with climate change.
3,402 citations
Cites background from "Land surface processes and Sahel cl..."
...Note that in the Sahel region, drought has also been reported as a possible factor leading to the buildup of dust, which in turnmay affect the radiation balance and circulation patterns (Nicholson, 2000)....
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors used the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) sensor on the Nimbus 7 satellite to map the global distribution of major atmospheric dust sources with the goal of identifying common environmental characteristics.
Abstract: [1] We use the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) sensor on the Nimbus 7 satellite to map the global distribution of major atmospheric dust sources with the goal of identifying common environmental characteristics The largest and most persistent sources are located in the Northern Hemisphere, mainly in a broad “dust belt” that extends from the west coast of North Africa, over the Middle East, Central and South Asia, to China There is remarkably little large-scale dust activity outside this region In particular, the Southern Hemisphere is devoid of major dust activity Dust sources, regardless of size or strength, can usually be associated with topographical lows located in arid regions with annual rainfall under 200–250 mm Although the source regions themselves are arid or hyperarid, the action of water is evident from the presence of ephemeral streams, rivers, lakes, and playas Most major sources have been intermittently flooded through the Quaternary as evidenced by deep alluvial deposits Many sources are associated with areas where human impacts are well documented, eg, the Caspian and Aral Seas, Tigris-Euphrates River Basin, southwestern North America, and the loess lands in China Nonetheless, the largest and most active sources are located in truly remote areas where there is little or no human activity Thus, on a global scale, dust mobilization appears to be dominated by natural sources Dust activity is extremely sensitive to many environmental parameters The identification of major sources will enable us to focus on critical regions and to characterize emission rates in response to environmental conditions With such knowledge we will be better able to improve global dust models and to assess the effects of climate change on emissions in the future It will also facilitate the interpretation of the paleoclimate record based on dust contained in ocean sediments and ice cores
2,653 citations
TL;DR: Wiley et al. as mentioned in this paper reviewed recent literature on the last millennium, followed by an update on global aridity changes from 1950 to 2008, and presented future aridity is presented based on recent studies and their analysis of model simulations.
Abstract: This article reviews recent literature on drought of the last millennium, followed by an update on global aridity changes from 1950 to 2008. Projected future aridity is presented based on recent studies and our analysis of model simulations. Dry periods lasting for years to decades have occurred many times during the last millennium over, for example, North America, West Africa, and East Asia. These droughts were likely triggered by anomalous tropical sea surface temperatures (SSTs), with La Ni˜ na-like SST anomalies leading to drought in North America, and El-Ni˜ no-like SSTs causing drought in East China. Over Africa, the southward shift of the warmest SSTs in the Atlantic and warming in the Indian Ocean are responsible for the recent Sahel droughts. Local feedbacks may enhance and prolong drought. Global aridity has increased substantially since the 1970s due to recent drying over Africa, southern Europe, East and South Asia, and eastern Australia. Although El Ni˜ no-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), tropical Atlantic SSTs, and Asian monsoons have played a large role in the recent drying, recent warming has increased atmospheric moisture demand and likely altered atmospheric circulation patterns, both contributing to the drying. Climate models project increased aridity in the 21 st century over most of Africa, southern Europe and the Middle East, most of the Americas, Australia, and Southeast Asia. Regions like the United States have avoided prolonged droughts during the last 50 years due to natural climate variations, but might see persistent droughts in the next 20–50 years. Future efforts to predict drought will depend on models’ ability to predict tropical SSTs. 2010 JohnWiley &Sons,Ltd.WIREs Clim Change2010 DOI:10.1002/wcc.81
2,651 citations
TL;DR: A review of the role of Saharan dust in environmental change, the location and strength of source areas, the transport paths of material away from the desert, the rates ofSaharan dust deposition, the nature of that material (including PeriSaharan loess) and the changing rates of dust activity in response to long and short-term climatic changes can be found in this article.
1,016 citations
References
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TL;DR: Studies of ecosystem processes on the Jornada Experimental Range in southern New Mexico suggest that longterm grazing of semiarid grasslands leads to an increase in the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of water, nitrogen, and other soil resources, which leads to the desertification of formerly productive land.
Abstract: Studies of ecosystem processes on the Jornada Experimental Range in southern New Mexico suggest that longterm grazing of semiarid grasslands leads to an increase in the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of water, nitrogen, and other soil resources. Heterogeneity of soil resources promotes invasion by desert shrubs, which leads to a further localization of soil resources under shrub canopies. In the barren area between shrubs, soil fertility is lost by erosion and gaseous emissions. This positive feedback leads to the desertification of formerly productive land in southern New Mexico and in other regions, such as the Sahel. Future desertification is likely to be exacerbated by global climate warming and to cause significant changes in global biogeochemical cycles.
2,376 citations
TL;DR: A model to predict global patterns in vegetation physiognomy was developed from physiological considera- tions influencing the distributions of different functional types of plant in a given environment, and selected the potentially dominant types from among them as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: A model to predict global patterns in vegetation physiognomy was developed from physiological considera- tions influencing the distributions of different functional types of plant. Primary driving variables are mean coldest- month temperature, annual accumulated temeprature over 5"C, and a drought index incorporating the seasonality of precipitation and the available water capacity of the soil. The model predicts which plant types can occur in a given environment, and selects the potentially dominant types from among them. Biomes arise as combinations of domi- nant types. Global environmental data were supplied as monthly means of temperature, precipitation and sunshine (interpolated to a global 0.5" grid, with a lapse-rate correc-
2,040 citations
TL;DR: It is suggested that the high albedo of a desert contributes to a net radiative heat loss relative to its surroundings and that the resultant horizontal temperature gradients induce a frictionally controlled circulation which imports heat aloft and maintains thermal equilibrium through sinking motion and adiabatic compression as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: It is suggested that the high albedo of a desert contributes to a net radiative heat loss relative to its surroundings and that the resultant horizontal temperature gradients induce a frictionally controlled circulation which imports heat aloft and maintains thermal equilibrium through sinking motion and adiabatic compression. In the subtropics this sinking motion is superimposed on the descending branch of the mean Hadley circulation but is more intense. Thus the desert feeds back upon itself in an important manner.
If one takes into account the biosphere, this feedback mechanism could conceivably lead to instabilities or metastabilities in desert border regions. It is argued that a reduction of vegetation, with consequent increase in albedo, in the Sahel region at the southern margin of the Sahara would cause sinking motion, additional drying, and would therefore perpetuate the arid conditions. Numerical integrations with the general circulation model of NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies appear to substantiate this hypothesis. Increasing the albedo north of the ITCZ from 14% to 35% had the effect of shifting the ITCZ several degrees of latitude south and decreasing the rainfall in the Sahel about 40% during the rainy season.
1,387 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used a radiative transfer model embedded in a general circulation model to find that dust from disturbed soils causes a decrease of the net surface radiation forcing of about lWm-2, accompanied by increased atmospheric heating.
Abstract: AEROSOLS influence the global radiation budget1, and so changes in the atmospheric aerosol load due to either natural causes or human activity will contribute to climate change2. A large fraction of the mass of tropospheric aerosol is wind-blown mineral dust, and its contribution to radiative forcing can be locally significant3,22. Model calculations indicate that 50 ± 20% of the total atmospheric dust mass originates from disturbed soils4 (those affected by cultivation, deforestation, erosion, and frequent shifts in vegetation due to droughts and rains). Here, using a radiative transfer model embedded in a general circulation model, we find that dust from disturbed soils causes a decrease of the net surface radiation forcing of about lWm-2, accompanied by increased atmospheric heating that may be a significant forcing of atmospheric dynamics. These findings suggest that mineral dust from disturbed soils needs to be included among the climate forcing factors that are influenced by human activities.
996 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a global three-dimensional model of the atmospheric mineral dust cycle is developed for the study of its impact on the radiative balance of the atmosphere, which includes four size classes of minearl dust, whose source distributions are based on the distributions of vegetation, soil texture and soil moisture.
Abstract: A global three-dimensional model of the atmospheric mineral dust cycle is developed for the study of its impact on the radiative balance of the atmosphere. The model includes four size classes of minearl dust, whose source distributions are based on the distributions of vegetation, soil texture and soil moisture. Uplift and deposition are parameterized using analyzed winds and rainfall statistics that resolve high-frequency events. Dust transport in the atmosphere is simulated with the tracer transport model of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies. The simulated seasonal variations of dust concentrations show general reasonable agreement with the observed distributions, as do the size distributions at several observing sites. The discrepancies between the simulated and the observed dust concentrations point to regions of significant land surface modification. Monthly distribution of aerosol optical depths are calculated from the distribution of dust particle sizes. The maximum optical depth due to dust is 0.4-0.5 in the seasonal mean. The main uncertainties, about a factor of 3-5, in calculating optical thicknesses arise from the crude resolution of soil particle sizes, from insufficient constraint by the total dust loading in the atmosphere, and from our ignorance about adhesion, agglomeration, uplift, and size distributions of fine dust particles (less than 1 micrometer).
838 citations