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Journal Article•DOI•

Landscape response to tectonic forcing: Digital elevation model analysis of stream profiles in the Mendocino triple junction region, northern California

Noah P. Snyder1, Kelin X. Whipple1, Gregory E. Tucker1, Dorothy J. Merritts2•
Massachusetts Institute of Technology1, Franklin & Marshall College2
01 Aug 2000-Geological Society of America Bulletin (Geological Society of America)-Vol. 112, Iss: 8, pp 1250-1263
TL;DR: In this article, the authors evaluate and calibrate the shear stress (or similar unit stream-power) bedrock-incision model by studying stream profiles in a tectonically active mountain range.
Abstract: The topographic evolution of orogens is fundamentally dictated by rates and patterns of bedrock-channel incision. Quantitative field assessments of process-based laws are needed to accurately describe landscape uplift and denudation in response to tectonics and climate. We evaluate and calibrate the shear stress (or similar unit stream-power) bedrock-incision model by studying stream profiles in a tectonically active mountain range. Previous work on emergent marine terraces in the Mendocino triple junction region of northern California provides spatial and temporal control on rock-uplift rates. Digital elevation models and field data are used to quantify differences in landscape morphology associated with along-strike northwest to southeast changes in tectonic and climatic conditions. Analysis of longitudinal profiles supports the hypothesis that the study-area channels are in equilibrium with current uplift and climatic conditions, consistent with theoretical calculations of system response time based on the shear-stress model. Within uncertainty, the profile concavity (𝛉) of the trunk streams is constant throughout the study area (𝛉 ≈ 0.43), as predicted by the model. Channel steepness correlates with uplift rate. These data help constrain the two key unknown model parameters, the coefficient of erosion ( K ) and the exponent associated with channel gradient ( n ). This analysis shows that K cannot be treated as a constant throughout the study area, despite generally homogeneous substrate properties. For a reasonable range of slope-exponent values ( n ), best-fit values of K are positively correlated with uplift rate. This correlation has important implications for landscape-evolution models and likely reflects dynamic adjustment of K to tectonic changes, due to variations in orographic precipitation, and perhaps channel width, sediment load, and frequency of debris flows. The apparent variation in K makes a unique value of n impossible to constrain with present data.
Citations
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Book Chapter•DOI•
Tectonics from topography: Procedures, promise, and pitfalls

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Cameron Wobus1, Kelin X. Whipple2, Eric Kirby3, Noah P. Snyder4, Joel P. L. Johnson2, Katerina Spyropolou2, Benjamin T. Crosby2, Daniel Sheehan2 •
University of Colorado Boulder1, Massachusetts Institute of Technology2, Pennsylvania State University3, Boston College4
01 Jan 2006
TL;DR: In this article, a method for extracting topographic indices of longitudinal profi le shape and character from digital topographic data is described, which can then be used to delineate breaks in scaling that may be associated with tectonic boundaries.
Abstract: Empirical observations from fl uvial systems across the globe reveal a consistent power-law scaling between channel slope and contributing drainage area. Theoretical arguments for both detachmentand transport-limited erosion regimes suggest that rock uplift rate should exert fi rst-order control on this scaling. Here we describe in detail a method for exploiting this relationship, in which topographic indices of longitudinal profi le shape and character are derived from digital topographic data. The stream profi le data can then be used to delineate breaks in scaling that may be associated with tectonic boundaries. The description of the method is followed by three case studies from varied tectonic settings. The case studies illustrate the power of stream profi le analysis in delineating spatial patterns of, and in some cases, temporal changes in, rock uplift rate. Owing to an incomplete understanding of river response to rock uplift, the method remains primarily a qualitative tool for neotectonic investigations; we conclude with a discussion of research needs that must be met before we can extract quantitative information about tectonics directly from topography.

967 citations

Cites background or methods or result from "Landscape response to tectonic forc..."

  • ...We select regression bounds on a case by case basis, rather than simply adhering to the common set of regression limits (0.1 km2–5 km2) used by Snyder et al. (2000)....

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  • ...Reference concavities typically fall in the range of 0.35–0.65 (Snyder et al., 2000; Kirby and Whipple, 2001; Brocklehurst and Whipple, 2002; Kirby et al., 2003; Wobus et al., 2003)....

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  • ...The two principal conclusions of Snyder et al. (2000) are upheld in this reanalysis: (1) channel steepness increases by a factor of ~1.8 between the low and high uplift rate zones, and (2) there is no statistically significant difference in the concavity index between channels in the low and high…...

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  • ...Our data handling methods have been refined and improved over the years since our initial efforts in stream profile analysis (Snyder et al., 2000)....

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  • ...Because k s is a function of U, how- ever (see below, and Snyder et al., 2000; Kirby and Whipple, 2001; Kirby et al., 2003), a downstream change in rock uplift rate may be manifested as a change in profile concavity (e.g., Kirby and Whipple, 2001)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Bedrock rivers and the geomorphology of active orogens

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Kelin X. Whipple1•
Massachusetts Institute of Technology1
21 Apr 2004-Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
TL;DR: The results of intense research in the past decade are reviewed in this article, with the aim of highlighting remaining unknowns and suggesting fruitful avenues for further research, including the role of climate-driven denudation in the evolution of orogens.
Abstract: ■ Abstract Bedrock rivers set much of the relief structure of active orogens and dictate rates and patterns of denudation. Quantitative understanding of the role of climate-driven denudation in the evolution of unglaciated orogens depends first and foremost on knowledge of fluvial erosion processes and the factors that control incision rate. The results of intense research in the past decade are reviewed here, with the aim of highlighting remaining unknowns and suggesting fruitful avenues for further research. This review considers in turn (a) the occurrence and morphology of bedrock channels and their relation to tectonic setting; ( b) the physical processes of fluvial incision into rock; and (c) models of river incision, their implications, and the field and laboratory data needed to test, refine, and extend them.

956 citations

Cites background or result from "Landscape response to tectonic forc..."

  • ...…of river incision model parameters (Howard & Kerby 1983; Seidl & Dietrich 1992; Rosenbloom & Anderson 1994; Seidl et al. 1994; Stock & Montgomery 1999; Snyder et al. 2000, 2003a,b; Whipple et al. 2000b; Kirby & Whipple 2001; Lave & Avouac 2001; Tomkin et al. 2003; van der Beek & Bishop 2003)....

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  • ...For instance, in the small coastal streams studied by Snyder et al. (2000, 2003a), erosional morphologies indicate removal of joint blocks as the dominant incision mechanism, but, as confirmed by simple field experimentation, impacts by coarse bedload particles are clearly capable of dislodging…...

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  • ...…point where fully alluvial conditions prevail, depending on the study) varies widely from 0.3–1.2 (e.g., Tarboton et al. 1989, Sklar & Dietrich 1998, Snyder et al. 2000, Kirby & Whipple 2001, Brocklehurst & Whipple 2002, Tucker & Whipple 2002, Kirby et al. 2003, VanLaningham 2003; L.M. Schoenbohm,…...

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  • ...For instance, in both the Clearwater River studied by Pazzaglia & Brandon (2001) and the small coastal streams of the King Range studied by Snyder et al. (2000, 2003a), higher uplift rates are associated with greater exposure of bedrock and more frequent bedrock steps, but in each case there are…...

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  • ...…strong lithologic contrasts can produce differences in channel steepness index comparable to those associated with large gradients in rock uplift rate (Snyder et al. 2000, Duvall et al. 2003, Stock & Dietrich 2003, van der Beek & Bishop 2003; A. Duvall, E. Kirby & D. Burbank, manuscript in review)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Expression of active tectonics in erosional landscapes

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Eric Kirby1, Eric Kirby2, Kelin X. Whipple3•
University of Potsdam1, Pennsylvania State University2, Arizona State University3
01 Nov 2012-Journal of Structural Geology
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors provide an overview of the analysis and interpretation of channel profiles in erosional mountain ranges and show that existing data support theoretical expectations of positive, monotonic relationships between channel steepness index, a measure of channel gradient normalized for downstream increases in drainage area, and erosion rate at equilibrium, and that the transient response to perturbations away from equilibrium engenders specific spatial patterns in channel profiles that can be used to infer the forcing.

742 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Quantifying differential rock-uplift rates via stream profile analysis

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Eric Kirby1, Eric Kirby2, Kelin X. Whipple1•
Massachusetts Institute of Technology1, University of California, Santa Barbara2
01 May 2001-Geology
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed a simple theory for the impact of spatially variable rock-uplift rate on the concavity of bedrock river profiles in the Siwalik Hills of central Nepal.
Abstract: Despite intensive research into the coupling between tectonics and surface processes, our ability to obtain quantitative information on the rates of tectonic processes from topography remains limited due primarily to a dearth of data with which to test and calibrate process rate laws. Here we develop a simple theory for the impact of spatially variable rock-uplift rate on the concavity of bedrock river profiles. Application of the analysis to the Siwalik Hills of central Nepal demonstrates that systematic differences in the concavity of channels in this region match the predictions of a stream power incision model and depend on the position and direction of the channel relative to gradients in the vertical component of deformation rate across an active fault-bend fold. Furthermore, calibration of model parameters from channel profiles argued to be in steady state with the current climatic and tectonic regime indicates that (1) the ratio of exponents on channel drainage area and slope ( m / n ) is ∼0.46, consistent with theoretical predictions; (2) the slope exponent is consistent with incision either linearly proportional to shear stress or unit stream power ( n = 0.66 or n = 1, respectively); and (3) the coefficient of erosion is within the range of previously published estimates (mean K = 4.3 × 10 −4 m 0.2 /yr). Application of these model parameters to other channels in the Siwalik Hills yields estimates of spatially variable erosion rates that mimic expected variations in rock-uplift rate across a fault-bend fold. Thus, the sensitivity of channel gradient to rock- uplift rate in this landscape allows us to derive quantitative estimates of spatial variations in erosion rate directly from topographic data.

726 citations

Cites background from "Landscape response to tectonic forc..."

  • ...All regressions excluded data from hillslopes (Montgomery and Foufoula-Georgiou, 1993; Snyder et al., 2000) and from alluviated sections of the channels on either side of the anticline....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Fluvial incision and tectonic uplift across the Himalayas of central Nepal

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Jérôme Lavé, Jean Philippe Avouac
10 Nov 2001-Journal of Geophysical Research
TL;DR: In this article, the pattern of fluvial incision across the Himalayas of central Nepal is estimated from the distribution of Holocene and Pleistocene terraces and from the geometry of modern channels along major rivers draining across the range.
Abstract: The pattern of fluvial incision across the Himalayas of central Nepal is estimated from the distribution of Holocene and Pleistocene terraces and from the geometry of modern channels along major rivers draining across the range. The terraces provide good constraints on incision rates across the Himalayan frontal folds (Sub-Himalaya or Siwaliks Hills) where rivers are forced to cut down into rising anticlines and have abandoned numerous strath terraces. Farther north and upstream, in the Lesser Himalaya, prominent fill terraces were deposited, probably during the late Pleistocene, and were subsequently incised. The amount of bedrock incision beneath the fill deposits is generally small, suggesting a slow rate of fluvial incision in the Lesser Himalaya. The terrace record is lost in the high range where the rivers are cutting steep gorges. To complement the terrace study, fluvial incision was also estimated from the modern channel geometries using an estimate of the shear stress exerted by the flowing water at the bottom of the channel as a proxy for river incision rate. This approach allows quantification of the effect of variations in channel slope, width, and discharge on the incision rate of a river; the determination of incision rates requires an additional lithological calibration. The two approaches are shown to yield consistent results when applied to the same reach or if incision profiles along nearby parallel reaches are compared. In the Sub-Himalaya, river incision is rapid, with values up to 10–15 mm/yr. It does not exceed a few millimeters per year in the Lesser Himalaya, and rises abruptly at the front of the high range to reach values of ∼4–8 mm/yr within a 50-km-wide zone that coincides with the position of the highest Himalayan peaks. Sediment yield derived from the measurement of suspended load in Himalayan rivers suggests that fluvial incision drives hillslope denudation of the landscape at the scale of the whole range. The observed pattern of erosion is found to closely mimic uplift as predicted by a mechanical model taking into account erosion and slip along the flat-ramp-flat geometry of the Main Himalayan Thrust fault. The morphology of the range reflects a dynamic equilibrium between present-day tectonics and surface processes. The sharp relief together with the high uplift rates in the Higher Himalaya reflects thrusting over the midcrustal ramp rather than the isostatic response to reincision of the Tibetan Plateau driven by late Cenozoic climate change, or late Miocene reactivation of the Main Central Thrust.

722 citations

References
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Book•
Water in environmental planning

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Thomas Dunne, Luna Bergere Leopold
01 Jan 1978
TL;DR: A comprehensive review of the current literature associated with water resources can be found in this paper, but perhaps more importantly can also be used as an introductory working document in dealing with particular environmental problems.
Abstract: This book reviews many of the problems which currently confront the environmental planner - problems which promise to become even more signifcant in the near future. Water resources are examined essentially from a physical standpoint, although throughout the text the emphasis is on the application of basic hydrologic principles in problem solving. The stated aim of the authors is to make all those concerned with planning more aware of the opportunities and constraints of natural processes in maintaining or reclaiming environmental quality. They are successful in outlining the significant role of water in many environmental issues. The book provides a comprehensive review of the current literature associated with water resources, but perhaps more importantly can also be used as an introductory working document in dealing with particular environmental problems. Several chapters for instance include working examples to illustrate specific problem-solving techniques. The book is divided into four sections, the first of which describes six case studies and exemplifies many of the problems facing the environmental planner today. The remaining three sections discuss basic hydrologic principles, fluvial geomorphology and water quality, stressing the value of such studies for improved environmental management. The text is supplemented by bibliographies, photographs, tables, and diagrams.

2,252 citations

"Landscape response to tectonic forc..." refers background in this paper

  • ...…Q = k q A c , (3) where A is upstream drainage area, k q is a dimensional coefficient, and c is a positive constant, the value of which is approximately unity or slightly less (Dunne and Leopold, 1978; Pazzaglia et al., 1998), particularly for small, steep drainages, such as those studied here....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic climate

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Maureen E. Raymo1, William F. Ruddiman2•
Massachusetts Institute of Technology1, University of Virginia2
10 Sep 1992-Nature
TL;DR: In particular, tectonically driven increases in chemical weathering may have resulted in a decrease of atmospheric C02 concentration over the past 40 Myr as discussed by the authors. But this was not shown to be the case for the uplift of the Tibetan plateau and positive feedbacks initiated by this event.
Abstract: Global cooling in the Cenozoic, which led to the growth of large continental ice sheets in both hemispheres, may have been caused by the uplift of the Tibetan plateau and the positive feedbacks initiated by this event. In particular, tectonically driven increases in chemical weathering may have resulted in a decrease of atmospheric C02 concentration over the past 40 Myr.

1,924 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Channel-reach morphology in mountain drainage basins

[...]

David R. Montgomery1, John M. Buffington1•
University of Washington1
01 May 1997-Geological Society of America Bulletin
TL;DR: In this article, a classification of channel-reach morphology in mountain drainage basins synthesizes stream morphologies into seven distinct reach types: colluvial, bedrock, and five alluvial channel types (cascade, step pool, plane bed, pool rime and dune ripple).
Abstract: A classification of channel-reach morphology in mountain drainage basins synthesizes stream morphologies into seven distinct reach types: colluvial, bedrock, and five alluvial channel types (cascade, step pool , plane bed, pool rime, and dune ripple). Coupling reach-level channel processes with the spatial arrangement of reach morphologies, their links to hillslope processes, and external forcing by confinement, ripar­ ian vegetation, and woody debris defines a process-based framework within which to assess channel condition and response potential in mountain drainage basins. Field investigations demonstrate character­ istic slope, grain size, shear stress, and roughness ranges for different reach types, observations consistent with our hypothesis that alluvial channel morphologies reflect specific roughness configurations ad­ justed to the relative magnitudes of sediment supply and transport ca­ pacity. Steep alluvial channels (cascade and step pool) have high ratios of transport capacity to sediment supply and are resilient to changes in discharge and sediment supply, whereas low-gradient alluvial channels (pool rime and dune ripple) have lower transport capacity to supply ra­ tios and thus exhibit significant and prolonged response to changes in sediment supply and discharge. General differences in the ratio of transport capacity to supply between channel types allow aggregation of reaches into source, transport, and response segments, the spatial distribution of which provides a watershed-level conceptual model linking reach morphology and channel processes. These two scales of channel network classification define a framework within which to in­ vestigate spatial and temporal patterns of channel response in moun­ tain drainage basins.

1,889 citations

"Landscape response to tectonic forc..." refers background in this paper

  • ...…the local stream-bed morphology varies from cobble to sand plane bed near the mouths of the larger drainages to a locally variable mix of step-pool, boulder-cascade , bedrock, and colluvial conditions in the higher parts of the basins (classification scheme of Montgomery and Buffington, 1997)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Magnitude and Frequency of Forces in Geomorphic Processes

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M. Gordon Wolman, John P. Miller
01 Jan 1960-The Journal of Geology
TL;DR: The relative importance in geomorphic processes of extreme or catastrophic events and more frequent events of smaller magnitude can be measured in terms of the relative amounts of "work" done on the landscape and the formation of specific features of the landscape as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The relative importance in geomorphic processes of extreme or catastrophic events and more frequent events of smaller magnitude can be measured in terms of (1) the relative amounts of "work" done on the landscape and (2) in terms of the formation of specific features of the landscape. For many processes, above the level of competence, the rate of movement of material can be expressed as a power function of some stress, as for example, shear stress. Because the frequency distributions of the magnitudes of many natural events, such as floods, rainfall, and wind speeds, approximate log-normal distributions, the product of frequency and rate, a measure of the work performed by events having different frequencies and magnitudes will attain a maximum. The frequency at which this maximum occurs provides a measure of the level at which the largest portion of the total work is accomplished. Analysis of records of sediment transported by rivers indicates that the largest portion of the total load is carried by flow...

1,850 citations

"Landscape response to tectonic forc..." refers background in this paper

  • ...In general , we anticipate that the high-flow width most likely represents the geomorphically significant flow condition (Wolman and Miller, 1960)....

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  • ...…for basal shear stress (τ b ) is obtained: , (2) where ρ is density of water, C f is a dimensionless friction factor, g is gravitational acceleration, S is local channel slope (dz/dx), Q is a characteristic stream discharge (Wolman and Miller, 1960), and W is a characteristic channel width....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Dynamics of the stream‐power river incision model: Implications for height limits of mountain ranges, landscape response timescales, and research needs

[...]

Kelin X. Whipple1, Gregory E. Tucker1•
Massachusetts Institute of Technology1
10 Aug 1999-Journal of Geophysical Research
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the stream power erosion model in an effort to elucidate its consequences in terms of large-scale topographic (fluvial) relief and its sensitivity to tectonic and climatic forcing.
Abstract: The longitudinal profiles of bedrock channels are a major component of the relief structure of mountainous drainage basins and therefore limit the elevation of peaks and ridges. Further, bedrock channels communicate tectonic and climatic signals across the landscape, thus dictating, to first order, the dynamic response of mountainous landscapes to external forcings. We review and explore the stream-power erosion model in an effort to (1) elucidate its consequences in terms of large-scale topographic (fluvial) relief and its sensitivity to tectonic and climatic forcing, (2) derive a relationship for system response time to tectonic perturbations, (3) determine the sensitivity of model behavior to various model parameters, and (4) integrate the above to suggest useful guidelines for further study of bedrock channel systems and for future refinement of the streampower erosion law. Dimensional analysis reveals that the dynamic behavior of the stream-power erosion model is governed by a single nondimensional group that we term the uplift-erosion number, greatly reducing the number of variables that need to be considered in the sensitivity analysis. The degree of nonlinearity in the relationship between stream incision rate and channel gradient (slope exponent n) emerges as a fundamental unknown. The physics of the active erosion processes directly influence this nonlinearity, which is shown to dictate the relationship between the uplift-erosion number, the equilibrium stream channel gradient, and the total fluvial relief of mountain ranges. Similarly, the predicted response time to changes in rock uplift rate is shown to depend on climate, rock strength, and the magnitude of tectonic perturbation, with the slope exponent n controlling the degree of dependence on these various factors. For typical drainage basin geometries the response time is relatively insensitive to the size of the system. Work on the physics of bedrock erosion processes, their sensitivity to extreme floods, their transient responses to sudden changes in climate or uplift rate, and the scaling of local rock erosion studies to reach-scale modeling studies are most sorely needed.

1,805 citations

"Landscape response to tectonic forc..." refers background or result in this paper

  • ...Whipple and Tucker (1999) show that the value of n exerts strong control on equilibrium channel slope, equilibrium topographic relief, transient profile form, and response time scale....

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  • ...…similar unit stream-power) model, in which incision rate is given by a power function of drainage area and channel slope (e.g., Howard and Kerby, 1983; Seidl and Dietrich, 1992; Anderson, 1994; Howard, 1994; Moglen and Bras, 1995; Tucker, 1996; Stock and Montgomery, 1999; Whipple and Tucker, 1999)....

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  • ...Whipple and Tucker (1999) derived an expression for channel response time to changes in rock-uplift rate....

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  • ...However, the mean value is consistent with both the theoretical prediction that m/n should depend only on the exponents b and c (equations 9 and 13) (Whipple and Tucker, 1999 ) and the equilibrium channel hypothesis....

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  • ...This observation is consistent with a prediction of the shear-stress incision model (equations 9 and 13; Whipple and Tucker, 1999), and has important implications for possible downstream variation of the erosion coefficient, and the style of channel response to changes in uplift rate....

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Related Papers (5)
Dynamics of the stream‐power river incision model: Implications for height limits of mountain ranges, landscape response timescales, and research needs

[...]

10 Aug 1999-Journal of Geophysical Research
Kelin X. Whipple, Gregory E. Tucker
Bedrock rivers and the geomorphology of active orogens

[...]

21 Apr 2004-Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Kelin X. Whipple
Tectonics from topography: Procedures, promise, and pitfalls

[...]

01 Jan 2006
Cameron Wobus, Kelin X. Whipple, Eric Kirby, Noah P. Snyder, Joel P. L. Johnson, Katerina Spyropolou, Benjamin T. Crosby, Daniel Sheehan 
Channel changes in badlands

[...]

01 Jun 1983-Geological Society of America Bulletin
Alan D. Howard, Gordon Kerby
A detachment-limited model of drainage basin evolution

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01 Jul 1994-Water Resources Research
Alan D. Howard