Lexical Coverage in L1 and L2 Listening Comprehension: The Same or Different from Reading Comprehension?
TL;DR: This paper showed that most native and non-native participants could adequately comprehend the spoken texts with only 90 per cent coverage, although the non-natives showed considerable variation at this level.
Abstract: Most research on L2 reading comprehension has indicated that 98 per cent lexical coverage provides adequate comprehension of written text. This figure has been transferred to listening comprehension and has been used to set vocabulary size targets for L2 learners. This study directly investigates coverage in regard to listening comprehension, to determine whether such transfer is reasonable. The coverage of four spoken informal narrative passages was manipulated, and participants’ (36 native and 40 non-native speakers) listening comprehension of factual information was measured. Results showed that most native and non-native participants could adequately comprehend the spoken texts with only 90 per cent coverage, although the non-natives showed considerable variation at this level. At 95 per cent coverage, non-native participants also demonstrated relatively good comprehension, but with much less variation. Based on a 95 per cent coverage figure, language users would need to know between 2,000 and 3,000 word families for adequate listening comprehension, compared with Nation’s (2006) calculation of 6,000–7,000 families based on a 98 per cent figure.
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TL;DR: This paper argued that the high-frequency vocabulary of English should include the most frequent 3,000 word families, and the low frequency vocabulary boundary should be lowered to the 9,000 level, on the basis that 8-9,000 families are sufficient to provide the lexical resources necessary to read a wide range of authentic texts.
Abstract: The high-frequency vocabulary of English has traditionally been thought to consist of the 2,000 most frequent word families, and low-frequency vocabulary as that beyond the 10,000 frequency level. This paper argues that these boundaries should be reassessed on pedagogic grounds. Based on a number of perspectives (including frequency and acquisition studies, the amount of vocabulary necessary for English usage, the range of graded readers, and dictionary defining vocabulary), we argue that high-frequency English vocabulary should include the most frequent 3,000 word families. We also propose that the low-frequency vocabulary boundary should be lowered to the 9,000 level, on the basis that 8–9,000 word families are sufficient to provide the lexical resources necessary to be able to read a wide range of authentic texts (Nation 2006). We label the vocabulary between high-frequency (3,000) and low-frequency (9,000+) as mid-frequency vocabulary. We illustrate the necessity of mid-frequency vocabulary for proficient language use, and make some initial suggestions for research addressing the pedagogical challenge raised by mid-frequency vocabulary.
278 citations
Cites background from "Lexical Coverage in L1 and L2 Liste..."
...The most frequent 2,000 word families form the traditional cut-off point for high frequency vocabulary, a tradition widely cited in teacher guidebooks and research publications (e.g. Nation 1990, 2001a; Read 2000; Schmitt 2000; Thornbury 2002)....
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TL;DR: This paper investigated L2 learners' acquisition of three vocabulary knowledge dimensions through listening: form recognition, grammar recognition, and meaning recall, finding that learners start developing knowledge of a word (i.e. form and grammar recognition) long before they master the form-meaning link.
173 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors studied the impact of learner variables and the degree to which they might predict success in L2 listening comprehension in the first year of a French immersion program.
Abstract: Listening comprehension plays a key role in language acquisition, yet little is known about the variables that contribute to the development of second language (L2) listening ability. This study sought to obtain empirical evidence for the impact of some of the learner variables and the degree to which they might predict success in L2 listening. The learner variables of interest included: first language (L1) listening ability, L1 vocabulary knowledge, L2 vocabulary knowledge, auditory discrimination ability, metacognitive awareness of listening, and working memory capacity. Data from 157 Grade Seven students in the first year of a French immersion program indicated a significant relationship among most of the variables and L2 listening ability. A number of path analyses were then conducted, based on hypothetical relationships suggested by current theory and research, in order to uncover relationships between the variables in determining L2 listening comprehension ability. The best fit to the data supported a model in which general skills (auditory discrimination and working memory) are initially important, leading to more specific language skills (L1 and L2 vocabulary) in determining L2 listening comprehension. In positing a provisional model, this study opens up useful avenues for further research on model building in L2 listening.
155 citations
TL;DR: This article investigated linguistic influences on comprehensibility and accentedness in second language learners' extemporaneous speech and found that comprehensibility was associated with several linguistic variables (vowel/consonant errors, word stress, fluency, lexis, grammar), whereas accentedity was chiefly linked to pronunciation.
Abstract: The current study investigated linguistic influences on comprehensibility (ease of understanding) and accentedness (linguistic nativelikeness) in second language (L2) learners’ extemporaneous speech. Target materials included picture narratives from 40 native French speakers of English from different proficiency levels. The narratives were subsequently rated by 20 native speakers with or without linguistic and pedagogical experience for comprehensibility, accentedness, and 11 linguistic variables spanning the domains of phonology, lexis, grammar, and discourse structure. Results showed that comprehensibility was associated with several linguistic variables (vowel/consonant errors, word stress, fluency, lexis, grammar), whereas accentedness was chiefly linked to pronunciation (vowel/consonant errors, word stress). Native-speaking listeners thus appear to pay particular attention to pronunciation, rather than lexis and grammar, to evaluate nativelikeness but tend to consider various sources of linguistic information in L2 speech in judging comprehensibility. The use of listener ratings (perceptual measures) in evaluating linguistic aspects of learner speech and their implications for language assessment and pedagogy are discussed.
153 citations
Cites result from "Lexical Coverage in L1 and L2 Liste..."
...For instance, previous research has shown that L2 learners may need to increase their vocabulary size beyond the first 2,000 word families to be able to understand everyday spoken discourse (e.g. Van Zeeland and Schmitt 2013) and other speech genres (e.g. Webb and Rodgers 2009)....
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TL;DR: This article developed and validated two new forms of the vocabulary levels test, which consist of five levels measuring knowledge of vocabulary at the 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, and 5000 levels.
Abstract: The Vocabulary Levels Test (Nation, 1983; Schmitt, Schmitt, & Clapham, 2001) indicates the word frequency level that should be used to select words for learning. The present study involves the development and validation of two new forms of the test. The new forms consist of five levels measuring knowledge of vocabulary at the 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, and 5000 levels. Items for the tests were sourced from Nation’s (2012) BNC/COCA word lists. The research involved first identifying quality items using the data from 1,463 test takers to create two equivalent forms, and then evaluating the forms with the data from a further 250 test takers. This study also makes an initial attempt to validate the new forms using Messick’s (1989, 1995) validity framework.
152 citations
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02 Apr 2001TL;DR: Learning Vocabulary in Another Language Second Edition shows that by taking a systematic approach to vocabulary learning, teachers can make the best use of class time and help learners get the best return for their learning effort.
Abstract: Learning Vocabulary in Another Language Second Edition is an updated version of this key reference work in the area of second and foreign language vocabulary studies. The book provides a detailed survey of research and theory on the teaching and learning of vocabulary with the aim of providing pedagogical suggestions for both teachers and learners. It contains descriptions of numerous vocabulary learning strategies which are justified and supported by reference to experimental research, case studies, and teaching experience. It also describes what vocabulary learners need to know to be effective language users. Learning Vocabulary in Another Language Second Edition shows that by taking a systematic approach to vocabulary learning, teachers can make the best use of class time and help learners get the best return for their learning effort.
3,738 citations
TL;DR: The authors report on the trialling of fourteen 1,000 word-family lists made from the British National Corpus, and use these lists to see what vocabulary size is needed for unassisted comprehension of written and spoken English.
Abstract: This article has two goals: to report on the trialling of fourteen 1,000 word-family lists made from the British National Corpus, and to use these lists to see what vocabulary size is needed for unassisted comprehension of written and spoken English. The trialling showed that the lists were properly sequenced and there were no glaring omissions from the lists. If 98% coverage of a text is needed for unassisted comprehension, then a 8,000 to 9,000 word-family vocabulary is needed for comprehension of written text and a vocabulary of 6,000 to 7,000 for spoken text.
1,270 citations
23 Mar 2005
TL;DR: This chapter discusses methods and Curricula in Second Language Teaching and Learning, and a model of Academic Literacy for Integrated Language and Content Instruction based on the work of R.A. Snow and S.L. McKay.
Abstract: Contents: Introduction. Part I: Important Social Contexts in Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning. Introduction. M.E. Brisk, Bilingual Education. M.R. Hawkins, ESL in Elementary Education. P.A. Duff, ESL in Secondary Schools: Programs, Problematics, and Possibilities. D.E. Murray, ESL in Adult Education. S. Carkin, English for Academic Purposes. P. Master, English for Specific Purposes. C. Roberts, English in the Workplace. B. Tomlinson, English as a Foreign Language: Matching Procedures to the Context of Learning. Y. Kachru, Teaching and Learning of World Englishes. Part II: Methods in Second Language Research. Introduction. L. Harklau, Ethnography and Ethnographic Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning. L. van Lier, Case Study. A. Lazaraton, Quantitative Research Methods. D. Nunan, Classroom Research. A. Burns, Action Research. Part III: Applied Linguistics and Second Language Research. Introduction. T. Pica, Second Language Acquisition Research and Applied Linguistics. S.L. McKay, Sociolinguistics and Second Language Learning. J. Zuengler, K.M. Cole, Language Socialization and Second Language Learning. G. Kasper, C. Roever, Pragmatics in Second Language Learning. J.P. Lantolf, Sociocultural and Second Language Learning Research: An Exegesis. N. Markee, Conversation Analysis for Second Language Acquisition. R.B. Kaplan, Contrastive Rhetoric. S. Conrad, Corpus Linguistics and L2 Teaching. Part IV: Second Language Processes and Development. Introduction. G. Ioup, Age in Second Language Development. R. DeKeyser, A. Juffs, Cognitive Considerations in L2 Learning. Z. Han, L. Selinker, Fossilization in L2 Learners. M. Swain, The Output Hypothesis: Theory and Research. E. Tarone, Speaking in a Second Language. M. Rost, L2 Listening. T.G. Wiley, Second Language Literacy and Biliteracy. P. Byrd, Instructed Grammar. D.E. Eskey, Reading in a Second Language. I.S.P. Nation, Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. J.S. Hedgcock, Taking Stock of Research and Pedagogy in L2 Writing. E. Hinkel, Analyses of Second Language Text and What Can Be Learned From Them. Part V: Methods and Curricula in Second Language Teaching. Introduction. S.J. Savignon, Communicative Language Teaching: Strategies and Goals. S. Fotos, Traditional and Grammar Translation Methods for Second Language Teaching. J. Williams, Form-Focused Instruction. M.A. Snow, A Model of Academic Literacy for Integrated Language and Content Instruction. R. Ellis, Instructed Language Learning and Task-Based Teaching. M. Celce-Murcia, E. Olshtain, Discourse-Based Approaches: A New Framework for Second Language Teaching and Learning. C.A. Chapelle, Computer-Assisted Language Learning. N.J. Anderson, L2 Learning Strategies. Part VI: Second Language Testing and Assessment. T. McNamara, Introduction. A.J. Kunnan, Language Assessment From a Wider Context. A. Davies, C. Elder, Validity and Validation in Language Testing. M. Chalhoub-Deville, C. Deville, A Look Back at and Forward to What Language Testers Measure. T. Lumley, A. Brown, Research Methods in Language Testing. D. Douglas, Testing Languages for Specific Purposes. C. Leung, Classroom Teacher Assessment of Second Language Development: Construct as Practice. Part VII: Identity, Culture, and Critical Pedagogy in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Introduction. T. Ricento, Considerations of Identity in L2 Learning. M. Byram, A. Feng, Teaching and Researching Intercultural Competence. S. Canagarajah, Critical Pedagogy in L2 Learning and Teaching. Part VIII: Language Planning and Policy and Language Rights. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., Introduction. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., Language Planning and Policy Research: An Overview. T. van Els, Status Planning for Learning and Teaching. A.J. Liddicoat, Corpus Planning: Syllabus and Materials Development. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., R.B. Kaplan, Language-in-Education Planning. D.E. Ager, Prestige and Image Planning. S. May, Language Planning and Minority Language Rights.
1,196 citations
TL;DR: This article concluded that a large vocabulary is necessary to function in English: 8000-9000 word families for reading, and perhaps as many as 5000-7000 families for oral discourse.
Abstract: This article overviews current research on second language vocabulary learning. It concludes that a large vocabulary is necessary to function in English: 8000—9000 word families for reading, and perhaps as many as 5000—7000 families for oral discourse. In addition, a number of word knowledge aspects need to be learned about each lexical item. Taken together, this amounts to a substantial lexical learning challenge, one which many/most learners fail to meet. To facilitate adequate vocabulary learning, four vocabulary learning partners (students, teachers, materials writers, and researchers) need to contribute to the learning process. Vocabulary learning programs need to include both an explicit, intentional learning component and a component based around maximizing exposure and incidental learning. The four learning strands (meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, language-focused learning, and fluency development) suggested by Nation (2001) provide a structure by which to integrate intentional and ...
1,036 citations
TL;DR: This paper used a range of analysis techniques to present validity evidence and explore the equivalence of two revised and expanded versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLST) for language assessment and vocabulary research.
Abstract: The Vocabulary Levels Test has been widely used in language assessment and vocabulary research despite never having been properly validated. This article reports on a study which uses a range of analysis techniques to present validity evidence, and to explore the equivalence of two revised and expanded versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test.
1,013 citations