Lime-Induced Heave in Sulfate-Bearing Clay Soils
01 Feb 1988-Journal of Geotechnical Engineering (American Society of Civil Engineers)-Vol. 114, Iss: 2, pp 150-167
TL;DR: In this article, the authors found abundant thaumasite, a complex calcium-silicate-hydroxide-sulfate-carbonate-hyd rate mineral, forming a solid solution series with ettringite.
Abstract: Expansive reactions between lime and sulfate-bearing clay soils have attracted little attention until relatively recently. Lime treatment of Stewart Avenue in Las Vegas, Nevada, had induced heave in excess of 12 in. Heaved areas are found to contain abundant thaumasite, a complex calcium-silicate-hydroxide-sulfate-carbonate-hyd rate mineral. Thaumasite forms a solid solution series with ettringite, a calcium-aluminum-hydroxide-sulfate-hy drate mineral. In the presence of aluminum, ettringite forms first and is replaced by thaumasite only at temperatures below 15°C. The mechanism of heave is a complex function of available water, the percentage of soil clay, and ion mobility. Only the long-term possolanic chemistry of normal lime-soil reactions is disrupted. Cation exchange, agglomeration, and carbonation are unaffected. With the present state of knowledge, lime-induced heave is difficult to predict for all but most obvious conditions.
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TL;DR: In this paper, fly ash waste materials were used along with quicklime (CaO) to immobilize lead, trivalent and hexavalent chromium present in artificially contaminated clayey sand soils.
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Cites background from "Lime-Induced Heave in Sulfate-Beari..."
...Ettringite however, is known to be quite expansive when brought in contact with water, and its swelling could lead to catastrophic failures (Mitchell, 1984; Zhou and Colombo, 1987; Hunter, 1988; Dermatas, 1992; Mitchell and Dermatas, 1992), as well as possible releases of the previously immobilized toxic heavy metal components into adjacent water bodies....
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors addressed the some fundamental and success soil improvement techniques used in civil engineering field and addressed the failure to identify the existence and magnitude of expansion of these soils in the early stage of project planning.
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References
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TL;DR: In this paper, the aging of quick clay after sampling, the remolded strength increases in samples maintained at constant water content, time effects in freshly densified or deposited sand, in which natural sand deposits can lose strength if disturbed but regain strength over time periods of weeks to months, and apparently sound lime-stabilized soil that swells and disintegrates starting a few years after construction.
Abstract: In spite of our present very advanced analytical capabilities, our present ability to predict actual field behavior is, in many cases, woefully inadequate. Four cases are described to illustrate one of the reasons why actual and predicted performances are sometimes so widely divergent—namely, failure to understand how a soil might respond over time to changed conditions. The four cases are: (1) The aging of quick clay after sampling, in which the remolded strength increases in samples maintained at constant water content; (2) time effects in freshly densified or deposited sand, in which natural sand deposits can lose strength if disturbed but regain strength over time periods of weeks to months; (3) apparently sound lime‐stabilized soil that swells and disintegrates starting a few years after construction; and (4) the failure of excess pore pressures to dissipate as predicted during the consolidation of soft clays. Study of each of these problems has led to an understanding of the responsible phenomena an...
297 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, an extensive study of 38 typical Illinois soils indicated that organic carbon content, soil pH, natural soil drainage, clay mineralogy, horizons, carbonate content, and soil weathering substantially influence soil lime reactivity.
Abstract: Laboratory studies have shown that variable strength increases are produced by lime treatment of different fine-grained soils. An extensive study of 38 typical Illinois soils indicated that organic carbon content, soil pH, natural soil drainage, clay mineralogy, horizons, carbonate content, and soil weathering substantially influence soil lime reactivity. Lime reactivity is not significantly correlated with such typical engineering properties as liquid limit, plasticity index, AASHO group index, and percentage < 2 μ clay. Natural soil properties and characteristics can be used to evaluate quantitatively the lime-reactivity potential of a soil.
129 citations
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the effect of the presence of SULFATE IONS in CEMENT and LIME-STABILIZED SOILS on the DURABILITY of CEMENT-and lIME-staBILized SOILS.
Abstract: THE RESULTS OF A LABORATORY INVESTIGATION MADE TO DETERMINE THE EFFECT OF THE PRESENCE OF SULFATE IONS IN SOILS ON THE DURABILITY OF CEMENT- AND LIME-STABILIZED SOILS ARE DESCRIBED. THE METHOD OF INVESTIGATION CONSISTED OF OBSERVING THE BEHAVIOR OF SPECIMENS OF STABILIZED SOIL WHEN TOTALLY IMMERSED IN WATER. WHEN TESTED IN THIS WAY CEMENT- OR LIME-STABILIZED CLAY MIXTURES CONTAINING CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM, OR SODIUM SULFATES DISINTEGRATED WITHIN A FEW DAYS OF BEING IMMERSED, WHEREAS CEMENT-STABILIZED SAND MIXTURES CONTAINING THE SAME PROPORTIONS OF SULFATE WERE UNAFFECTED EVEN AFTER BEING IMMERSED FOR ONE YEAR. THIS SUGGESTED THAT THE EFFECT WAS RELATED TO THE CLAY CONTENT OF THE SOIL, AND DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS AND X-RAY ANALYSIS SHOWED THAT, AT THE HIGH PH VALUES ENCOUNTERED IN CEMENT AND LIME-STABILIZED SOILS, A REACTION OCCURS BETWEEN THE CLAY FRACTION AND ANY SULFATES PRESENT. IT IS PROPOSED THAT SULFATE ATTACK ON CEMENT-STABILIZED SOILS IS DUE PRINCIPALLY TO THIS REACTION AND THAT THE RELATIVELY SLOW COMBINATION OF THE SULFATES WITH THE CEMENT IS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. THIS EXPLAINS WHY LIME-STABILIZED CLAY SOILS ARE SIMILARY AFFECTED BY THE PRESENCE OF SULFATES AND ALSO WHY THE SEVERITY OF THE ACTION OF SULFATES CANNOT BE REDUCED BY USING SULFATE-RESISTANT CEMENT IN PLACE OF ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT. IT IS CONCLUDED THAT UNDER CERTAIN CONDITIONS SULFATES PRESENT IN A CEMENT- OR LIME-STABILIZED SOIL CAN LEAD TO ITS DISINTEGRATION. THESE CONDITIONS ARE MOST LIKELY TO OCCUR WHEN THE SOIL CONTAINS AN APPRECIABLE CLAY FRACTION AND WHEN THE MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE SOIL IS LIABLE TO INCREASE ABOVE THAT AT WHICH IT WAS COMPACTED. BECAUSE UNDER OTHER CIRCUMSTANCES SULFATES MAY APPEAR TO HAVE A BENEFICIAL EFFECT, IT IS SUGGESTED THAT IS IS INADVISABLE TO MAKE USE OF THESE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS UNLESS ALL POSSIBILITY OF DELETERIOUS EFFECTS ON THE DURABILITY OF THE MATERIAL CAN BE EXCLUDED. /AUTHOR/
55 citations
TL;DR: In tunnels sulphate damage was detected in the concrete lining by X-ray analysis from the needles showed diffraction values from a t h a u m a s a s i t e as mentioned in this paper, which is remarkable that the formula contains a relatively high level of SiO2 and little SO3 and CO2.
29 citations
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this article, the authors conducted a three-year study on the effect of varying the percentage of LIME on the performance of four different types of SOIL-LIME mixtures.
Abstract: THIS PAPER SUMMARIZES THE RESULTS OF RESEARCH ON SOIL-LIME STABILIZATION CONDUCTED AT M. I. T. DURING THE PAST THREE YEARS. DATA ARE PRESENTED ON: (1) THE EFFECT OF VARYING PERCENTAGES OF LIME (OR QUICKLIME) ON THE COMPACTION AND STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF FOUR SOILS RANGING FROM A CLAYEY SAND TO AN ORGANIC CLAY. STRENGTH WAS DETERMINED BY UNCONFINED COMPRESSION (OR PENETRATION RESISTANCE) TESTS ON AS-MOLDED, AS-CURED, AND/OR ON CURED AND SOAKED SAMPLES. (2) THE EFFECT OF MIXING VARYING PERCENTAGES OF QUICKLIME WITH FOUR VERY WET SOILS, RANGING FROM A SILT TO A FAT CLAY IN ORDER TO INCREASE THE STRENGTH OF THESE SOILS AT A RAPID RATE. (3) THE EFFECT OF SECONDARY ADDITIVES (VARIOUS SODIUM COMPOUNDS) AT DIFFERENT CONCENTRATIONS ON THE SOAKED UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AFTER FROM 4 TO 28 DAYS CURING OF SEVEN SOIL-LIME MIXTURES. THE SOIL-LIME MIXTURES CONSISTED OF: PURE MINERALS, RANGING FROM QUARTZ TO KAOLINITE, PLUS 10 PERCENT CALCIUM HYDROXIDE, AND NATURAL SOILS, RANGING FROM AN UNIFORM SILT TO AN ORGANIC CLAY, PLUS 5 PERCENT CALCIUM LIME. THE TEST RESULTS SHOW THAT: (1) LIME REDUCES THE COMPACTED DENSITY OF THE SOILS BUT GREATLY INCREASES THE SOAKED STRENGTH AFTER CURING PERIODS OF FROM 7 TO 28 DAYS. (2) FROM 1 TO 5 PERCENT QUICKLIME CAN INCREASE THE STRENGTH OF WET SOILS 3 - TO 10-FOLD WITHIN 2 HOURS. (3) SODIUM COMPOUNDS (SUCH AS SODIUM HYDROXIDE, SODIUM SILICATE AND SODIUM SULFATE) CAN INCREASE THE SOAKED STRENGTH OF SOIL-LIME MIXTURES, OFTEN BY SEVERAL FOLD. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE SODIUM COMPOUNDS VARIES WITH SOIL TYPE, ADDITIVE CONCENTRATION, AND LENGTH OF CURING. SODIUM METASILICATE WAS USUALLY FOUND TO BE THE MOST EFFECTIVE ADDITIVE. IT INCREASED THE 7 DAY SOAKED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF SIX OF THE SEVEN SOILS BY 100 TO 200 PSI. /AUTHOR/
20 citations