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Journal ArticleDOI

Lime stabilization of clay minerals and soils

Fred G. Bell1
01 Jul 1996-Engineering Geology (Elsevier)-Vol. 42, Iss: 4, pp 223-237
TL;DR: In this paper, three of the most frequently occurring minerals in clay deposits, namely, kaolinite, montmorillonite and quartz, were subjected to a series of tests.
About: This article is published in Engineering Geology.The article was published on 1996-07-01. It has received 1035 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Lime & Calcium oxide.
Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, Al-Khod (Town in northern Oman) expansive soil was stabilized using lime, cement, combinations of lime and cement, Sarooj (artificial pozzolan) and heat treatment.

392 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the influence of the mixture of polypropylene fiber and lime on the engineering properties of a clay-ey soil was investigated and analyzed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis of the specimens after shearing.

378 citations


Cites background or result from "Lime stabilization of clay minerals..."

  • ...As a matter of fact, the additional amount of lime is related to the clay content of the soil and normally does not exceed 8% (Bell, 1996), which agrees with the optimum lime requirement obtained in this investigation....

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  • ...According to some pertinent studies on lime soils (Bell, 1996; Han and Wang, 2001) and fibre reinforced soils (Li et al....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a lean clay was stabilized with metakaolin-based geopolymer at different concentration (ranging from 3 to 15% of unstabilized soil at its optimum water content) to examine the feasibility of applying geopolymers in stabilizing soils.

304 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a series of laboratory tests were conducted on a highly expansive clay soil treated with lime in order to study the lime-soil reaction over a short term and the progression of the pozzolanic reaction over longer term.

301 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the changes in the main geotechnical properties associated with the micro level texture and structure of untreated and lime-treated compacted FoCa clay samples were studied using X-Ray Diffraction, Thermogravimetric Analysis, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission EM (TEM) methods.

273 citations


Cites background or methods from "Lime stabilization of clay minerals..."

  • ...These constituents react with Ca of lime and precipitate hydrated cementitious products and bond the adjacent soil particles together (Ingles and Metcalf, 1972; Bell, 1996; Little, 1996; James et al., 2008)....

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  • ...XRD was often used to follow the evolution of the clay-lime reaction; researchers (Arabi and Wild, 1989; Bell, 1996) attribute the appearance of new reflections to the formation of CSAH (CSH, CAH,....

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References
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Journal Article
TL;DR: The first part of the investigation has been conducted at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign as discussed by the authors, where the X-ray experiments were used to study the reaction of the hydrated limes with the soil.
Abstract: THE USE OF HYDRATED LIME HAS BEEN GROWING IN THE FIELD OF SOIL STABILIZATION ALTHOUGH IT HAS BEEN USED FROM COAST TO COAST IN THE UNITED STATES AND BY SOME NATIONS ABROAD, THE REACTION OF HYDRATED LIME WITH THE SOIL IS STILL A MYSTERY, PARTICULARLY WITH RESPECT TO ITS RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS AND RATES OF REACTION WITH VARIOUS SOILS A RESEARCH PROJECT TO DETERMINE THE REACTION OF HYDRATED LIME AND SOIL IS UNDER WAY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS BECAUSE OF THE COMPLEXITY OF SOILS AND BECAUSE LIME IS OF GREATER BENEFIT TO A HEAVY CLAY SOIL, THE FIRST PART OF THE INVESTIGATION HAS BEEN DEVOTED TO A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF HYDRATED LIME ON PURE CLAY MINERALS BY THE AID OF X-RAY DIFFRACTION AND DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS, IT HAS BEEN POSSIBLE TO WATCH AND IDENTIFY THE REACTIONS WHICH TAKE PLACE THE FIRST REACTION, WHICH IS BROUGHT ABOUT IMMEDIATELY WHEN LIME IS ADDED, IS REPLACEMENT OF ABSORBED IONS BY CALCIUM IONS, THE SECOND, FORMATION OF A SERIES OF NEW MINERALS, THE THIRD, CARBONATION OF THE HYDRATED LIME THESE REACTIONS, ILLUSTRATED BY TYPICAL X-RAY EXAMPLES, OFFER DEFINITE PROOF AS TO WHY DIFFERENT RATES OF REACTION OCCUR WITH DIFFERENT SOILS /AUTHOR/

218 citations

Journal Article
TL;DR: In this article, the authors reviewed the role of PHYSICO-CHEMICAL and CHEMICAL reactions responsible for the slow development of strength in SOIL-LIME systems.
Abstract: LITERATURE ON THE MECHANICS OF THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS RESPONSIBLE FOR SOIL-LIME STABILIZATION IS CRITICALLY REVIEWED. COMMONLY SUGGESTED EXPLANATIONS OF THE STABILIZING EFFECTS OBSERVED IN SOIL-LIME STABILIZATION ARE CATION EXCHANGE REPLACEMENT OF EXISTING CATIONS BY CALCIUM, FLOCCULATION, AND CARBONATION. THESE PROCESSES ARE DISCOUNTED. THE NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF THE REACTION HELD RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SLOW DEVELOPMENT OF STRENGTH IN SOIL- LIME SYSTEMS ARE DISCUSSED. IN GENERAL, THE PRODUCTS FORMED ARE USUALLY TOBERMORITE GEL, AND A CALCIUM ALUMINATE HYDRATE PHASE DISTINGUISHED BY A 7.6 ANGSTROM BASAL SPACING THAT IS STABLE TO MODERATE DRYING. OTHER COMPOUNDS FORMED UNDER SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES INCLUDE TRICALCIUM ALUMINATE HEXAHYDRATE AND CALCIUM SILICATE HYDRATE. THE LITERATURE TENDS TO SUGGEST A THROUGH-SOLUTION MECHANISM DEPENDENT ON THE RATE OF DISSOLUTION OF THE CLAY /OR OF SILICA AND ALUMINA FROM THE CLAY/ SINCE IT IS IMPLIED THAT THE REACTION DEPENDS ON ATTAINMENT OF A HIGH PH AND SINCE ADDITION OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE ACCELERATES STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT. ON THE OTHER HAND, EVIDENCE THAT THE REACTION PROCEEDS FROM AN INITIAL STATE OF PHYSICAL ADSORPTION OF LIME ON THE SURFACE OF THE CLAY WOULD SUGGEST A SURFACE CHEMICAL REACTION NOT DEPENDENT ON PRIOR DISSOLUTION OF MATERIAL FROM THE CLAY.

148 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a study of the literature shows that hydrated lime has been used with success to stabilise soils in road foundations in certain parts of the world, and an investigation has therefore been initiated to study the effect of adding lime to British soils.
Abstract: Synopsis A study of the literature shows that hydrated lime has been used with success to stabilise soils in road foundations in certain parts of the world, and an investigation has therefore been initiated to study the effect of adding lime to British soils. As published information suggested that cohesive soils would respond more favourably to lime than would granular soils, the experiments were made with a range of clays. The Paper describes the first stage of the work. Samples of unweathered clay from ten geological formations were mixed with 1, 2, 4, 7, and 10% by weight of hydrated lime, at moisture contents near the liquid and plastic limits. The samples were stored in air-tight containers for periods of 1, 6, and 12 months. These, together with a series of freshly prepared samples of similar compositions, were used for the determination of the liquid and plastic limits of the mixtures and for establishing the suction/ moisture content relationships under wetting conditions. Estimations were also m...

94 citations

Journal Article
TL;DR: In the fall of 1956 and the spring of 1957 SUBGRADE SOILS on three ProJECTS in VIRGINIA WERE STABILIZED with HYDRATED LIME as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: IN THE FALL OF 1956 AND THE SPRING OF 1957 SUBGRADE SOILS ON THREE PROJECTS IN VIRGINIA WERE STABILIZED WITH HYDRATED LIME. THE PROJECTS, LOCATED APPROXIMATELY 150 MILES APART, WERE CONSTRUCTED ON THREE DIFFERENT SOIL TYPES. THE CLAY FRACTION OF EACH OF THE THREE SOILS WAS COMPOSED OF DIFFERENT CLAY MINERALS. THEREFORE, THERE WAS A CONSIDERABLE DIFFERENCE IN THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOILS. THE THREE PROJECTS WERE SAMPLED DURING 1960 FOR THE PURPOSE OF STUDYING THE EFFECTS OF ADDITION OF HYDRATED LIME. X-RAY DIFFRACTION DATA OF THE TREATED SOILS REVEALED THAT NEW MINERALS--CALCIUM SILICATE-HYDRATES AND CALCIUM CARBONATE-- HAD BEEN FORMED. PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF THIN SECTIONS PREPARED FROM THE TREATED SOILS SHOWED THAT THE SOURCE OF ADDITIONAL STRENGTH WAS A CEMENTING MATERIAL, HYDRATED CALCIUM SILICATES, WHICH NOW INTERLACES THE SOIL GRAINS. /AUTHOR/

53 citations

Journal Article
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of the type and content of the clay fraction on the specimens' compressive strength, Q, cohesion, C, angle of internal friction, phi, and elastic modulus, e, was determined.
Abstract: Artificially prepared, lime-treated mixtures of sand-clay were studied in the laboratory. The experimental programme was arranged with two types of clay mineral (kaolinite and montmorillonite), three levels of clay content (10,30 and 50 per cent), four levels of lime content for the kaolinite soils (0,2,4,8 per cent) and five levels for the montmorillonite soils (0,2,4,8,12 per cent). Two periods of curing (seven and 28 days) were employed. Firstly the maximum dry density optimum moisture content relationships for the 27 different mixtures were determined using one compactive effort. Test specimens for these mixtures were then fabricated at their corresponding optimum compaction conditions. The effect of the type and content of the clay fraction on the specimens' compressive strength, Q, cohesion, C, angle of internal friction, phi, and elastic modulus, e, was determined. The results showed that regardless of the clay content in the soil, increases in the values of q, C, and e due to lime-treatment are significantly higher for the montmorillonite than for the kaolinite specimens. Generally the most significant increase in any of these parameters occurs at two per cent lime for the kaolinite specimens, while for the montmorillonite specimens these strength parameters tend to develop progressively with lime content up to about eight per cent or even beyond. The pattern of increase in the angle of internal friction due to lime treatment is comparable for the two types of soil. The most significant increase occurs mostly up to two per cent lime where it reaches about 10 degrees. Good correlations between unconfined compressive strength and both cohesion and elastic modulus were observed. Linear regression equations for the prediction of and e for lime-treated soils from known values of g were accordingly established. (Author/TRRL)

53 citations