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Journal Article•DOI•

Long γ-ray bursts and core-collapse supernovae have different environments

A. S. Fruchter1, Andrew J. Levan2, Andrew J. Levan3, Andrew J. Levan1, L. G. Strolger4, L. G. Strolger1, Paul Vreeswijk5, Stephen E. Thorsett6, D. Bersier7, D. Bersier1, I. Burud8, I. Burud1, J. M. Castro Cerón9, J. M. Castro Cerón1, A. J. Castro-Tirado10, Christopher J. Conselice11, Christopher J. Conselice12, Tomas Dahlen13, Henry C. Ferguson1, Johan P. U. Fynbo9, Peter M. Garnavich14, R. A. Gibbons15, R. A. Gibbons1, Javier Gorosabel10, Javier Gorosabel1, Theodore R. Gull, Jens Hjorth9, Stephen T. Holland16, Chryssa Kouveliotou17, Zoltan G. Levay1, Mario Livio1, M. R. Metzger18, Peter Nugent19, Larry Petro1, Elena Pian20, James E. Rhoads1, Adam G. Riess1, Kailash C. Sahu1, Alain Smette5, Nial R. Tanvir3, Ralph A. M. J. Wijers21, S. E. Woosley6 •
Space Telescope Science Institute1, University of Leicester2, University of Hertfordshire3, Western Kentucky University4, European Southern Observatory5, University of California, Santa Cruz6, Liverpool John Moores University7, Norwegian Meteorological Institute8, University of Copenhagen9, Spanish National Research Council10, University of Nottingham11, California Institute of Technology12, Stockholm University13, University of Notre Dame14, Vanderbilt University15, Goddard Space Flight Center16, Marshall Space Flight Center17, Renaissance Technologies18, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory19, INAF20, University of Amsterdam21
25 May 2006-Nature (Nature Publishing Group)-Vol. 441, Iss: 7092, pp 463-468
TL;DR: In this article, the authors show that long-duration γ-ray bursts are associated with the most extremely massive stars and may be restricted to galaxies of limited chemical evolution. But they also show that the host galaxies of the long-drone bursts are significantly fainter and more irregular than the hosts of the core-collapse supernovae.
Abstract: When massive stars exhaust their fuel, they collapse and often produce the extraordinarily bright explosions known as core-collapse supernovae. On occasion, this stellar collapse also powers an even more brilliant relativistic explosion known as a long-duration γ-ray burst. One would then expect that these long γ-ray bursts and core-collapse supernovae should be found in similar galactic environments. Here we show that this expectation is wrong. We find that the γ-ray bursts are far more concentrated in the very brightest regions of their host galaxies than are the core-collapse supernovae. Furthermore, the host galaxies of the long γ-ray bursts are significantly fainter and more irregular than the hosts of the core-collapse supernovae. Together these results suggest that long-duration γ-ray bursts are associated with the most extremely massive stars and may be restricted to galaxies of limited chemical evolution. Our results directly imply that long γ-ray bursts are relatively rare in galaxies such as our own Milky Way.

Summary (2 min read)

Jump to: [Article] – [1 The Sample] – [2 Positions of GRBs and supernovae on their Hosts] – [3 A Comparison of the Host Populations] and [4 Discussion]

Article

  • LJMU has developed LJMU Research Online for users to access the research output of the University more effectively.
  • In accordance with that journal’s editorial policy the authors ask that you do not discuss this work with the Press until it appears in Nature either online or in print.
  • When massive stars exhaust their fuel they collapse and often produce the extraordinarily bright explosions known as core-collapse supernovae.
  • The authors find that the long γ-ray bursts are far more concentrated on the very brightest regions of their host galaxies than are the core-collapse supernovae.
  • The authors also compare the sizes, morphologies and brightnesses of the LGRB hosts with those of the supernovae.

1 The Sample

  • Over forty LGRBs have been observed with HST at various times after outburst.
  • HST is unique in its capability to easily resolve the distant hosts of these objects.
  • A list of all the GRBs used in this work can be found in Tables 1—3 of the Supplementary Material.
  • The supernovae discussed in this Article were all discovered as part of the Hubble Higher z Supernova Search29, 30, which was done in cooperation with the HST GOODS survey31.
  • The GOODS survey observed two ∼ 150 sq. arcminute patches of sky five times each in epochs separated by forty-five days.

2 Positions of GRBs and supernovae on their Hosts

  • If LGRBs do in fact trace massive star formation, then in the absence of strong extinction the authors should find a close correlation between their position on their host galaxies and the blue light of those galaxies.
  • The authors sort all of the pixels of the host galaxy image from faintest to brightest and ask what fraction of the total light of the host is contained in pixels fainter than or equal to the pixel containing the explosion.
  • The situation is clearly different for LGRBs.
  • A KS test rejects the hypothesis that GRBs are distributed as the light of their hosts with a probability greater than 99.98%.
  • In the next section of this paper the authors show that the surprising differences in the locations of these objects on the underlying light of their hosts may be due not only to the nature of their progenitor stars but also that of their hosts.

3 A Comparison of the Host Populations

  • An examination of the mosaics of the GRB and SN hosts (Figures 1 and 2) immediately shows a remarkable contrast – only one GRB host in this set of 42 galaxies is a grand-design spiral, while nearly half of the SN hosts are grand-design spirals.
  • Included in the comparison are all LGRBs with known redshifts z < 1.2 at the time of submission and the 16 cc supernovae of GOODS with spectroscopic or photometric redshifts (See the Supplementary Tables for a complete list of the GRBs, supernovae and associated parameters used in this study).
  • For a technical discussion of the determination of the magnitude and size of individual objects, please see the Supplementary Materials.
  • As can be readily seen the two host populations differ substantially both in their intrinsic magnitudes and sizes.
  • Indeed KS tests reject the hypothesis that these two populations are drawn from the same population with greater than 98.6% and 99.7% certainty for the magnitude and size distributions, respectively.

4 Discussion

  • Their observations show that the distribution of LGRBs and cc supernovae on their hosts, and the nature of their hosts themselves are substantially different.
  • 26 were from supernovae largely discovered on nearby massive galaxies – dwarf irregular hosts are underrepresented in these samples.
  • Finally, if low-metallicity is indeed the primary variable in determining whether LGRBs are produced, then as the authors observe higher redshifts, where metallicities are lower than in most local galaxies, LGRBs should be more uniformly distributed among star-forming galaxies.
  • A Gamma-Ray Burst Afterglow Discovered by Its Supernova Light, also known as GRB 020410.
  • The blue arrows and histogram correspond to the GRBs and the red arrows and histogram correspond to the supernovae.

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Fruchter, AS, Levan, AJ, Strolger, L, Vreeswijk, PM, Thorsett, SE, Bersier, D,
Burud, I, Castro Ceron, JM, Castro-Tirado, AJ, Conselice, C, Dahlen, T,
Ferguson, HC, Fynbo, JPU, Garnavich, PM, Gibbons, RA, Gorosabel, J, Gull,
TR, Hjorth, J, Holland, ST, Kouveliotou, C, Levay, Z, Livio, M, Metzger, MR,
Nugent, PE, Petro, L, Pian, E, Rhoads, JE, Riess, AG, Sahu, KC, Smette, A,
Tanvir, NR, Wijers, RAMJ and Woosley, SE
Long gamma-ray bursts and core-collapse supernovae have different
environments
http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/4882/
Article
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Citation (please note it is advisable to refer to the publisher’s version if you
intend to cite from this work)
Fruchter, AS, Levan, AJ, Strolger, L, Vreeswijk, PM, Thorsett, SE, Bersier, D,
Burud, I, Castro Ceron, JM, Castro-Tirado, AJ, Conselice, C, Dahlen, T,
Ferguson, HC, Fynbo, JPU, Garnavich, PM, Gibbons, RA, Gorosabel, J, Gull,
TR, Hjorth, J, Holland, ST, Kouveliotou, C, Levay, Z, Livio, M, Metzger, MR,
LJMU Research Online
For more information please contact researchonline@ljmu.ac.uk
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arXiv:astro-ph/0603537v2 5 May 2006
Long γ-ray bursts and core-collapse supernovae have dif-
ferent environments
A.S. Fruchter
1
, A.J. Levan
1,2,3
, L. Strolger
1,4
, P.M. Vreeswijk
5
, S.E. Thorsett
6
, D. Bersier
1,7
,
I. Burud
1,8
, J.M. Castro Cer´on
1,9
, A.J. Castro-Tirado
10
, C. Conselice
11,12
, T. Dahlen
13
, H.C. Ferguson
1
,
J.P.U. Fynbo
9
, P.M. Garnavich
14
, R.A. Gibbons
1,15
, J. Gorosabel
1,10
, T.R. Gull
16
, J. Hjorth
9
, S.T. Holland
17
,
C. Kouveliotou
18
, Z. Levay
1
, M. Livio
1
, M.R. Metzger
19
, P.E. Nugent
20
, L. Petro
1
, E. Pian
21
,
J.E. Rhoads
1
, A.G. Riess
1
, K.C. Sahu
1
, A. Smette
5
, N.R. Tanvir
3
, R.A.M.J. Wijers
22
, S.E. Woosley
6
1
Space Telescope Science Institute, 3700 San Martin Dr., Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
2
Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1
7RH, UK
3
Centre for Astrophysics Research, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hatfield, AL10
9AB, UK
4
Physics & Astronomy, TCCW 246, Western Kentucky University, 1 Big Red Way, Bowling
Green, KY 42101, USA
5
European Southern Observatory, Alonso de C´ordova 3107, Casilla 19001, Santiago, Chile
6
Dept of Astronomy & Astrophysics, University of California, 1156 High St, Santa Cruz, CA
95064, USA
7
Astrophysics Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Twelve Quays House,
Egerton Wharf, Birkenhead, CH41 1LD
8
Norwegian Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 43, Blindern, N-0313 Oslo, Norway
9
Dark Cosmology Centre, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen,
1
Denmark
10
Instituto de Astrof´ısica de Andaluc´ıa (CSIC), Camino Bajo de Hu´etor, 50, 18008 Granada, Spain.
11
California Institute of Technology, Mail Code 105-24, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
12
School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, University Park, United Kingdom,
NG7 2RD
13
Department of Physics, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
14
Physics Department, University of Notre Dame, 225 Nieuwland Hall, Notre Dame, IN 46556,
USA
15
Vanderbilt University, Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, 6301 Stevenson Center, Nashville, TN
37235, USA
16
Code 667 Extraterrestial Planets and Stellar Astrophysics, Exploration of the Universe Division,
Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA
17
Code 660.1, NASA’s GSFC, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA
18
NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center, VP-62, National Space Science & Technology Center, 320
Sparkman Drive, Huntsville, AL 35805, USA
19
Renaissance Technologies Corporation, 600 Route 25A, East Setauket, New York 11733
20
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, M.S. 50F-1650, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA
94720, USA
21
INAF, Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G.B. Tiepolo 11, I-34131 Trieste, Italy
22
Astronomical Institute ‘Anton Pannekoek’, University of Amsterdam, Kruislaan 403, NL-1098
SJ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
2
This paper has been accepted for publication in Nature. In accordance with that journal’s
editorial policy we ask that you do not discuss this work with the Press until it appears in Nature
either online or in print. Thank you.
When massive stars exhaust their fuel they collapse and often produce the extraordinarily
bright explosions known as core-collapse supernovae. On occasion, this stellar collapse also
powers an even more brilliant relativistic explosion known as a long-duration γ-ray burst.
One would then expect that long γ-ray bursts and core-collapse supernovae should be found
in similar galactic environments. Here we show that this expectation is wrong. We find that
the long γ-ray bursts are far more concentrated on the very brightest regions of their host
galaxies than are the core-collapse supernovae. Furthermore, the host galaxies of the long
γ-ray bursts are significantly fainter and more irregular than the hosts of the core-collapse
supernovae. Together these results suggest that long-duration γ-ray bursts are associated
with the most massive stars and may be restricted to galaxies of limited chemical evolution.
Our results directly imply that long γ-ray bursts are relatively rare in galaxies such as our
own Milky Way.
It is an irony of astrophysics that stellar birth is most spectacularly marked by the deaths
of massive stars. Massive stars burn brighter and hotter than smaller stars, and exhaust their fuel
far more rapidly. Therefore a region of star formation filled with low mass stars still early in
their lives, and in some cases still forming, may also host massive stars already collapsing and
producing supernovae. Indeed, with the exception of the now famous Type Ia supernovae , which
3
Citations
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Journal Article•DOI•
The Supernova Gamma-Ray Burst Connection

[...]

S. E. Woosley, Joshua S. Bloom
01 Sep 2006-Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
TL;DR: In this article, it was shown that most long-duration soft-spectrum gamma-ray bursts are accompanied by massive stellar explosions (GRB-SNe) and that most of the energy in the explosion is contained in nonrelativistic ejecta (producing the supernova) rather than in the relativistic jets responsible for making the burst and its afterglow.
Abstract: Observations show that at least some gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) happen simultaneously with core-collapse supernovae (SNe), thus linking by a common thread nature's two grandest explosions. We review here the growing evidence for and theoretical implications of this association, and conclude that most long-duration soft-spectrum GRBs are accompanied by massive stellar explosions (GRB-SNe). The kinetic energy and luminosity of well-studied GRB-SNe appear to be greater than those of ordinary SNe, but evidence exists, even in a limited sample, for considerable diversity. The existing sample also suggests that most of the energy in the explosion is contained in nonrelativistic ejecta (producing the supernova) rather than in the relativistic jets responsible for making the burst and its afterglow. Neither all SNe, nor even all SNe of Type Ibc produce GRBs. The degree of differential rotation in the collapsing iron core of massive stars when they die may be what makes the difference.

1,389 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Short-Duration Gamma-Ray Bursts

[...]

Edo Berger1•
Harvard University1
20 Aug 2014-Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
TL;DR: A review of nearly a decade of short gamma-ray bursts and their afterglow and host-galaxy observations is presented in this article, where the authors use this information to shed light on the nature and properties of their progenitors, the energy scale and collimation of the relativistic outflow, and the properties of the circumburst environments.
Abstract: Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) display a bimodal duration distribution with a separation between the short- and long-duration bursts at about 2 s. The progenitors of long GRBs have been identified as massive stars based on their association with Type Ic core-collapse supernovae (SNe), their exclusive location in star-forming galaxies, and their strong correlation with bright UV regions within their host galaxies. Short GRBs have long been suspected on theoretical grounds to arise from compact object binary mergers (neutron star–neutron star or neutron star–black hole). The discovery of short GRB afterglows in 2005 provided the first insight into their energy scale and environments, as well as established a cosmological origin, a mix of host-galaxy types, and an absence of associated SNe. In this review, I summarize nearly a decade of short GRB afterglow and host-galaxy observations and use this information to shed light on the nature and properties of their progenitors, the energy scale and collimation of the relativistic outflow, and the properties of the circumburst environments. The preponderance of the evidence points to compact object binary progenitors, although some open questions remain. On the basis of this association, observations of short GRBs and their afterglows can shed light on the on- and off-axis electromagnetic counterparts of gravitational wave sources from the Advanced LIGO/Virgo experiments.

1,061 citations

Cites background or methods from "Long γ-ray bursts and core-collapse..."

  • ...…high resolution imaging with theHubble Space Telescope(HST) showed that long GRBs follow the radial distribution expected for star formation in disk galaxies (Bloom, Kulkarni & Djorgovski 2002), and are spatially correlated with bright star-forming regions in their hosts (Fruchter et al. 2006)....

    [...]

  • ...…transients provide critical insight into the nature of their progenitors, and this has been used to establish the progenitor properties of various supernova types and long GRBs (e.g.,van den Bergh & Tammann 1991; Bloom, Kulkarni & Djorgovski 2002; Fruchter et al. 2006; Li et al. 2011)....

    [...]

  • ...Moreover, long GRBs are spatially correlated with bright 14 Edo Berger star-forming regions, even in comparison to normal core-collapse SNe (Fruchter et al. 2006, Svensson et al. 2010)....

    [...]

  • ...…that track star formation activity with a short delay (i.e., massive stars) we expect direct spatial correlation with the underlying rest-frame UV light (as found for long GRBs and core-collapse SNe;Fruchter et al. 2006; Kelly, Kirshner & Pahre 2008; Svensson et al. 2010; Kelly & Kirshner 2012)....

    [...]

  • ...…of the rest-frame UV brightness at the locations of long GRBs relative to the overall UV light distribution of the hosts have shown that long GRBs tend to occur in unusually bright star-forming regions, significantly more so than core-collapse SNe (Fruchter et al. 2006, Svensson et al. 2010)....

    [...]

Journal Article•DOI•
Short-hard gamma-ray bursts

[...]

Ehud Nakar1•
California Institute of Technology1
01 Apr 2007-Physics Reports
TL;DR: The theoretical and observational studies of short-hard gamma-ray bursts (SHBs) are reviewed in this article, along with new theoretical results that are presented here for the first time.

916 citations

Cites background or result from "Long γ-ray bursts and core-collapse..."

  • ...Following this association and several additional evidence (e.g., Fruchter et al. , 2006) the consensus today is that most, and probably all, long GRBs are produced by the collapse of very massive stars (e.g., Woosley, 1993; Paczynski, 1998; MacFadyen & Woosley, 1999)....

    [...]

  • ...Fruchter et al. (2006) explored 42 HST images of long GRB host galaxies and found that afterglow locations within the hosts are more concentrated in bright blue pixels than those of core-collapse supernovae....

    [...]

  • ...A quantitative test to determine if a burst is long can be done by analyzing its HST image in the same way Fruchter et al. (2006) did, and comparing the result with the known distribution of long GRB locations....

    [...]

  • ...Moreover, the star-formation rate of the host is low (< 1 M⊙/yr/(L/L∗)) and its lag-luminosity puts it away from the long GRB population and together with the other Swift SHBs. Additionally, its location in the HST image is on a faint pixel compare to the long GRB sample of Fruchter et al. (2006)....

    [...]

Journal Article•DOI•
Physical Properties of Wolf-Rayet Stars

[...]

Paul A. Crowther1•
University of Sheffield1
04 Sep 2007-Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
TL;DR: The striking broad emission line spectroscopic appearance of Wolf-rayet stars has long defied analysis, owing to the extreme physical conditions within their line-and continuum-forminformin...
Abstract: The striking broad emission line spectroscopic appearance of Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars has long defied analysis, owing to the extreme physical conditions within their line- and continuum-formin...

895 citations

Cites background or result from "Long γ-ray bursts and core-collapse..."

  • ...Such a scenario would appear to contradict Fruchter et al. (2006), regarding the location of GRBs in their host galaxies....

    [...]

  • ...At present, the single scenario is favoured since long-soft GRBs are predominantly observed in host galaxies which are fainter, more irregular and more metal-deficient than hosts of typical core-collapse supernovae (e.g. Fruchter et al. 2006)....

    [...]

Journal Article•DOI•
The physics of gamma-ray bursts & relativistic jets

[...]

Pawan Kumar1, Bing Zhang2•
University of Texas at Austin1, University of Nevada, Las Vegas2
24 Feb 2015-Physics Reports
TL;DR: A comprehensive review of major developments in our understanding of gamma-ray bursts, with particular focus on the discoveries made within the last fifteen years when their true nature was uncovered, can be found in this paper.

864 citations

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20 Jun 1998-The Astrophysical Journal
TL;DR: In this article, a reprocessed composite of the COBE/DIRBE and IRAS/ISSA maps, with the zodiacal foreground and confirmed point sources removed, is presented.
Abstract: We present a full-sky 100 μm map that is a reprocessed composite of the COBE/DIRBE and IRAS/ISSA maps, with the zodiacal foreground and confirmed point sources removed. Before using the ISSA maps, we remove the remaining artifacts from the IRAS scan pattern. Using the DIRBE 100 and 240 μm data, we have constructed a map of the dust temperature so that the 100 μm map may be converted to a map proportional to dust column density. The dust temperature varies from 17 to 21 K, which is modest but does modify the estimate of the dust column by a factor of 5. The result of these manipulations is a map with DIRBE quality calibration and IRAS resolution. A wealth of filamentary detail is apparent on many different scales at all Galactic latitudes. In high-latitude regions, the dust map correlates well with maps of H I emission, but deviations are coherent in the sky and are especially conspicuous in regions of saturation of H I emission toward denser clouds and of formation of H2 in molecular clouds. In contrast, high-velocity H I clouds are deficient in dust emission, as expected. To generate the full-sky dust maps, we must first remove zodiacal light contamination, as well as a possible cosmic infrared background (CIB). This is done via a regression analysis of the 100 μm DIRBE map against the Leiden-Dwingeloo map of H I emission, with corrections for the zodiacal light via a suitable expansion of the DIRBE 25 μm flux. This procedure removes virtually all traces of the zodiacal foreground. For the 100 μm map no significant CIB is detected. At longer wavelengths, where the zodiacal contamination is weaker, we detect the CIB at surprisingly high flux levels of 32 ± 13 nW m-2 sr-1 at 140 μm and of 17 ± 4 nW m-2 sr-1 at 240 μm (95% confidence). This integrated flux ~2 times that extrapolated from optical galaxies in the Hubble Deep Field. The primary use of these maps is likely to be as a new estimator of Galactic extinction. To calibrate our maps, we assume a standard reddening law and use the colors of elliptical galaxies to measure the reddening per unit flux density of 100 μm emission. We find consistent calibration using the B-R color distribution of a sample of the 106 brightest cluster ellipticals, as well as a sample of 384 ellipticals with B-V and Mg line strength measurements. For the latter sample, we use the correlation of intrinsic B-V versus Mg2 index to tighten the power of the test greatly. We demonstrate that the new maps are twice as accurate as the older Burstein-Heiles reddening estimates in regions of low and moderate reddening. The maps are expected to be significantly more accurate in regions of high reddening. These dust maps will also be useful for estimating millimeter emission that contaminates cosmic microwave background radiation experiments and for estimating soft X-ray absorption. We describe how to access our maps readily for general use.

15,988 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Maps of Dust IR Emission for Use in Estimation of Reddening and CMBR Foregrounds

[...]

David J. Schlegel1, Douglas P. Finkbeiner2, Marc Davis2•
Durham University1, University of California, Berkeley2
28 Oct 1997-arXiv: Astrophysics
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors presented a reprocessed composite of the COBE/DIRBE and IRAS/ISSA maps, with the zodiacal foreground and confirmed point sources removed.
Abstract: We present a full sky 100 micron map that is a reprocessed composite of the COBE/DIRBE and IRAS/ISSA maps, with the zodiacal foreground and confirmed point sources removed. Before using the ISSA maps, we remove the remaining artifacts from the IRAS scan pattern. Using the DIRBE 100 micron and 240 micron data, we have constructed a map of the dust temperature, so that the 100 micron map can be converted to a map proportional to dust column density. The result of these manipulations is a map with DIRBE-quality calibration and IRAS resolution. To generate the full sky dust maps, we must first remove zodiacal light contamination as well as a possible cosmic infrared background (CIB). This is done via a regression analysis of the 100 micron DIRBE map against the Leiden- Dwingeloo map of H_I emission, with corrections for the zodiacal light via a suitable expansion of the DIRBE 25 micron flux. For the 100 micron map, no significant CIB is detected. In the 140 micron and 240 micron maps, where the zodiacal contamination is weaker, we detect the CIB at surprisingly high flux levels of 32 \pm 13 nW/m^2/sr at 140 micron, and 17 \pm 4 nW/m^2/sr at 240 micron (95% confidence). This integrated flux is ~2 times that extrapolated from optical galaxies in the Hubble Deep Field. The primary use of these maps is likely to be as a new estimator of Galactic extinction. We demonstrate that the new maps are twice as accurate as the older Burstein-Heiles estimates in regions of low and moderate reddening. These dust maps will also be useful for estimating millimeter emission that contaminates CMBR experiments and for estimating soft X-ray absorption.

14,295 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Observational Evidence from Supernovae for an Accelerating Universe and a Cosmological Constant

[...]

Adam G. Riess, Alexei V. Filippenko, Peter Challis, Alejandro Clocchiattia, Alan H. Diercks, Peter M. Garnavich, R. L. Gilliland, Craig J. Hogan, Saurabh Jha, Robert P. Kirshner, Bruno Leibundgut, Mark M. Phillips, David J Reiss, Brian P. Schmidt, Robert A. Schommer, R. Chris Smith, Jason Spyromilio, Christopher W. Stubbs, Nicholas B. Suntzeff, John L. Tonry 
15 May 1998-arXiv: Astrophysics
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present observations of 10 type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) between 0.16 0 and 4.0 sigma confidence levels, for two fitting methods respectively.
Abstract: We present observations of 10 type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) between 0.16 0) and a current acceleration of the expansion (i.e., q_0 0, the spectroscopically confirmed SNe Ia are consistent with q_0 0 at the 3.0 sigma and 4.0 sigma confidence levels, for two fitting methods respectively. Fixing a ``minimal'' mass density, Omega_M=0.2, results in the weakest detection, Omega_Lambda>0 at the 3.0 sigma confidence level. For a flat-Universe prior (Omega_M+Omega_Lambda=1), the spectroscopically confirmed SNe Ia require Omega_Lambda >0 at 7 sigma and 9 sigma level for the two fitting methods. A Universe closed by ordinary matter (i.e., Omega_M=1) is ruled out at the 7 sigma to 8 sigma level. We estimate the size of systematic errors, including evolution, extinction, sample selection bias, local flows, gravitational lensing, and sample contamination. Presently, none of these effects reconciles the data with Omega_Lambda=0 and q_0 > 0.

14,295 citations

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[...]

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[...]

10 Oct 1999-The Astrophysical Journal
Andrew MacFadyen, Stan Woosley
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[...]

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[...]

20 Aug 1993-The Astrophysical Journal
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if low-metallicity is indeed the primary variable in determining whether LGRBs are produced, then as the authors observe higher redshifts, where metallicities are lower than in most local galaxies, LGRBs should be more uniformly distributed among star-forming galaxies. 

If the explosions track the distribution of light, then the fraction determined by this method should be uniformly distributed between zero and one. 

Due to the redshifts of the hosts, these images generally correspond to blue or ultra-violet images of the hosts in their rest frame, and thus detect light largely produced by the massive stars in the hosts. 

But in fact it was widely suspected that even more massive stars would be required – if only to provide the required large energies, and to limit the numbers of supernovae progressing to GRBs. 

The supernovae with good spectroscopic identifications so far associated with GRBs have been Type Ic – that is cc supernovae which show no evidence of hydrogen or helium in their spectra. 

The STIS and F606W images can be thought of as broad ”V” or visual images, and are, for galaxies exhibiting typical colors of GRB hosts, the single most sensitive settings for these cameras. 

Even before the association of LGRBs with massive stars had been established, a number oftheorists had suggested that these objects could be formed by the collapse of massive stars, which would leave behind rapidly spinning black holes. 

while the energy released in a LGRB often appears to the observer to be orders of magnitude larger than that of a supernovae, there is now good evidence suggesting that most LGRBs are highly collimated and often illuminate only a few percent of the sky22, 23. 

If LGRBs do in fact trace massive star formation, then in the absence of strong extinction the authors should find a close correlation between their position on their host galaxies and the blue light of those galaxies. 

Thus while the probability of a SN exploding in a particular pixel is roughly proportional to the surface brightness of the galaxy at that pixel, the probability of a GRB a given location effectively goes as a higher power of the local surface brightness. 

(Type Ib supernovae, which are often studied together with Type Ic, have spectra which are also largely devoid of hydrogen lines but show strong helium features.)