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Journal ArticleDOI

Management of chronic psychiatric patients by a token reinforcement system1

01 Mar 1970-Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior)-Vol. 3, Iss: 1, pp 47-55
TL;DR: A token reinforcement system for the reduction of institutionalized behavior in a chronic psychiatric ward was described and was found to be the source of the observed improvements.
Abstract: A token reinforcement system for the reduction of institutionalized behavior in a chronic psychiatric ward is described. Quantitative assessments were made of the effects of the system on five types of positively reinforced behavior, two types of unreinforced behavior, and two types of fined behavior. To assess whether these effects were a function of the token procedures, three experiments were carried out, the first removing tokens for a brief period, the second making tokens non-contingent on behavior, and the third removing fines in one area while maintaining them in another. The token procedures were found to be the source of the observed improvements.

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Several procedures are presented that are designed to facilitate maintenance of performance when reinforcement is withdrawn, and methodological suggestions for investigations on token reinforcement in applied settings are presented.
Abstract: Token economies have been applied in a wide range of settings. While there are several advantages to the use of this procedure, there are obstacles that may impede its implementation and therapeutic efficacy. These include: staff training, client resistance, circumvention of the contingencies, and non-responsiveness of subjects. Studies employing token programs with psychiatric patients, retardates, children in classroom settings, delinquents, and autistic children are reviewed. Although token economies are successful while in operation, the issue of generalization of behavior gains or resistance to extinction has not been given careful consideration. Inasmuch as generalization is perhaps the most crucial issue, several procedures are presented that are designed to facilitate maintenance of performance when reinforcement is withdrawn. Methodological suggestions for investigations on token reinforcement in applied settings are presented.

482 citations


Cites background from "Management of chronic psychiatric p..."

  • ...Winkler (1970) noted that episodes of both violence and noise decreased on a psychiatric ward while a token program was in effect for behaviors not directly related....

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Book ChapterDOI
01 Jan 1978

303 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is argued therefore, that behavior modification has supported rather than changed the questionable status quo and the role of behavior modification in the development of open classrooms is discussed.
Abstract: Classrooms have recently been criticized as total institutions where there is a rigid preoccupation with order and control, and where children are required to be still, to be silent, and to obey. Behavior modification has been described as a major source of change in the classroom. A review of this journal's papers on behavior modification in the classroom indicated that inappropriate behavior has been consistently defined as behavior that interferes with order, quiet, and stillness. It is argued therefore, that behavior modification has supported rather than changed the questionable status quo. Alternative areas for behavior modification in traditional classrooms and the role of behavior modification in the development of open classrooms are discussed.

272 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Token systems have the potential to significantly advance research and theory in behavioral economics, permitting both a more refined analysis of the costs and benefits underlying standard economic models, and a common currency more akin to human monetary systems.
Abstract: Token reinforcement procedures and concepts are reviewed and discussed in relation to general principles of behavior. The paper is divided into four main parts. Part I reviews and discusses previous research on token systems in relation to common behavioral functions—reinforcement, temporal organization, antecedent stimulus functions, and aversive control—emphasizing both the continuities with other contingencies and the distinctive features of token systems. Part II describes the role of token procedures in the symmetrical law of effect, the view that reinforcers (gains) and punishers (losses) can be measured in conceptually analogous terms. Part III considers the utility of token reinforcement procedures in cross-species analysis of behavior more generally, showing how token procedures can be used to bridge the methodological gulf separating research with humans from that with other animals. Part IV discusses the relevance of token systems to the field of behavioral economics. Token systems have the potential to significantly advance research and theory in behavioral economics, permitting both a more refined analysis of the costs and benefits underlying standard economic models, and a common currency more akin to human monetary systems. Some implications for applied research and for broader theoretical integration across disciplines will also be considered.

151 citations


Cites background or methods from "Management of chronic psychiatric p..."

  • ...…analysis of behavior has contributed to behavioral economics for over three decades (Green & Rachlin, 1975; Hursh, 1980, Lea, 1978), though with few exceptions (Kagel, 1972; Kagel & Winkler, 1972; Winkler, 1970), this work has not made direct contact with token reinforcement methods or concepts....

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  • ...…state psychiatric hospitals found broad support for economic demand theory (Battalio, Kagel, Winkler, Fisher, Bassman, & Krasner, 1974; Fisher, Winkler, Krasner, Kagel, Battalio, & Basmann, 1978; Winkler, 1970, 1973, 1980), suggesting the general utility of an economic perspective on token systems....

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  • ...Laboratory research in the experimental analysis of behavior has contributed to behavioral economics for over three decades (Green & Rachlin, 1975; Hursh, 1980, Lea, 1978), though with few exceptions (Kagel, 1972; Kagel & Winkler, 1972; Winkler, 1970), this 258 TIMOTHY D....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Response cost (RC) as discussed by the authors is a punishment procedure in which conditioned reinforcers (points, tokens, or money) are withdrawn to suppress a response, which has been used as a behavior therapy technique on its own and in conjunction with reinforcement in token economies.

87 citations