Masculinity, femininity, academic performance, and health: Further evidence concerning the androgyny controversy1
TL;DR: Masculinity emerged as a beneficial constellation of traits for both males and females, correlating negatively with achievement conflicts and stress symptoms, and positively with mastery and work, and it was suggested that, in the future, research inspired by an ideal conception of adult behavior confront the ideal directly rather than describe it in terms of the traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity.
Abstract: Spence and Helmreich's (1978) claim that individual differences in four components of achievement motivation (mastery, work, competitiveness, and personal unconcern) are attributable to masculinity and femininity rather than to gender was generally supported, with one exception: Masculinity was associated with competitiveness for males but not for females. Furthermore, competitive women were more likely than noncompetitive women to have mental and physical health problems, but there was no such difference for males. In general, masculinity emerged as a beneficial constellation of traits for both males and females, correlating negatively with achievement conflicts and stress symptoms, and positively with mastery and work. Femininity, on the other hand, appeared to be a detrimental cluster of traits for both sexes, at least in terms of academic performance and health. Implications for the controversial concept of androgyny were discussed, and it was suggested that, in the future, research inspired by an ideal conception of adult behavior confront the ideal directly rather than describe it in terms of the traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity. Any such research effort will have to deal with the pivotal role of competitiveness.
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TL;DR: The present meta-analysis demonstrated the presence of a stable female advantage in school marks while also identifying critical moderators, contradicting claims of a recent "boy crisis" in school achievement.
Abstract: A female advantage in school marks is a common finding in education research, and it extends to most course subjects (e.g., language, math, science), unlike what is found on achievement tests. However, questions remain concerning the quantification of these gender differences and the identification of relevant moderator variables. The present meta-analysis answered these questions by examining studies that included an evaluation of gender differences in teacher-assigned school marks in elementary, junior/middle, or high school or at the university level (both undergraduate and graduate). The final analysis was based on 502 effect sizes drawn from 369 samples. A multilevel approach to meta-analysis was used to handle the presence of nonindependent effect sizes in the overall sample. This method was complemented with an examination of results in separate subject matters with a mixed-effects metaanalytic model. A small but significant female advantage (mean d 0.225, 95% CI [0.201, 0.249]) was demonstrated for the overall sample of effect sizes. Noteworthy findings were that the female advantage was largest for language courses (mean d 0.374, 95% CI [0.316, 0.432]) and smallest for math courses (mean d 0.069, 95% CI [0.014, 0.124]). Source of marks, nationality, racial composition of samples, and gender composition of samples were significant moderators of effect sizes. Finally, results showed that the magnitude of the female advantage was not affected by year of publication, thereby contradicting claims of a recent “boy crisis” in school achievement. The present meta-analysis demonstrated the presence of a stable female advantage in school marks while also identifying critical moderators. Implications for future educational and psychological research are discussed.
865 citations
Cites background from "Masculinity, femininity, academic p..."
...S. estimated global .262 Olds & Shaver (1980) yes 76 109 North America undergraduate NR f m global .286 O’Reilly & McNamara (2007) yes 772 826 North America high school diverse f m science .228 Paolillo (1982) yes 110 110 North America graduate NR estimated global .283 Payne, Rapley, & Wells (1973)…...
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443 citations
TL;DR: The results of the meta-analysis were most supportive of the masculinity model and showed that the strength of observed relations between sex role orientation and self- esteem varied as a function of both the sex role measure and the type of self-esteem measure used in the studies.
Abstract: Research on the relation between sex role orientation and psychological well-being has been guided by one of three models. The traditional congruence model holds that psychological well-being is fostered only when one's sex role orientation is congruent with one's gender; the androgyny model proposes that well-being is maximized when one's sex role orientation incorporates a high degree of both masculinity and femininity regardless of one's gender; the masculinity model posits that well-being is a function of the extent to which one has a masculine sex role orientation. The adequacy of these three models was tested by means of a meta-analysis of 35 studies of the relation between sex role orientation and self-esteem, the indicator of psychological well-being most widely used in sex role studies. The results of the meta-analysis were most supportive of the masculinity model and showed that the strength of observed relations between sex role orientation and self-esteem varied as a function of both the sex role measure and the type of self-esteem measure used in the studies. In addition, a number of methodological issues was identified that should be taken into consideration in future research.
385 citations
TL;DR: In this article, auteur tente d'expliquer pourquoi l'on constate des effets differentiels du sexe on la performance scolaire a l'aide d'une enquete menee sur 1688 sujets âges de 11 a 13 ans.
Abstract: L'auteur tente d'expliquer pourquoi l'on constate des effets differentiels du sexe sur la performance scolaire a l'aide d'une enquete menee sur 1688 sujets âges de 11 a 13 ans. Les resultats montrent que l'explication a priori fournie jusqu'alors (differences dans l'identification au role sexuel) repose sur des bases empiriques serieuses mais que cette explication n'est pas suffisante
107 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined women's sex-role orientation, coping strategies, self-efficacy, and stress in male and female-dominated occupations and found that high-masculine women (measured by the...
Abstract: Examined women's sex-role orientation, coping strategies, self-efficacy, and stress in male- and female-dominated occupations. Results (n = 281) revealed that high-masculine women (measured by the ...
104 citations
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TL;DR: A new sex-role inventory is described that treats masculinity and femininity as two independent dimensions, thereby making it possible to characterize a person as masculine, feminine, or "androgynous" as a function of the difference between his or her endorsement of masculine and feminine personality characteristics.
Abstract: This article describes the development of a new sex-role inventory that treats masculinity and femininity as two independent dimensions, thereby making it possible to characterize a person as masculine, feminine, or "androgynous" as a function of the difference between his or her endorsement of masculine and feminine personality characteristics. Normative data are presented, as well as the results of various psychometric analyses. The major findings of conceptual interest are: (a) the dimensions of masculinity and femininity are empirically as well as logically independent; (6) the concept of psychological androgyny is a reliable one; and (c) highly sex-typed scores do not reflect a general tendency to respond in a socially desirable direction, but rather a specific tendency to describe oneself in accordance with sex-typed standards of desirable behavior for men and women. Both in psychology and in society at large, masculinity and femininity have long been conceptualized as bipolar ends of a single continuum; accordingly, a person has had to be either masculine or feminine, but not both. This sex-role dichotomy has served to obscure two very plausible hypotheses: first, that many individuals might be "androgynous" ; that is, they might be both masculine and feminine, both assertive and yielding, both instrumental and expressive—depending on the situational appropriateness of these various behaviors; and conversely, that strongly sex-typed individuals might be seriously limited in the range of behaviors available to them as they move from situation to situation. According to both Kagan (1964) and Kohlberg (1966), the highly sex-typed individual is motivated to keep his behavior consistent with an internalized sex-role standard, a goal that he presumably accomplishes by suppressing any behavior that might be con
7,984 citations
TL;DR: Comparisons of the nine primary symptom dimensions of the SCL-90 with the set of MMPI scales reflected very high convergent validity for the Scl-90, with secondary patterns of correlations showing high interpretative consistency.
Abstract: The present investigation was intended principally as a concurrent validation study for a new self-report symptom inventory: the SCL-90. A sample of 209 'symptomatic volunteers' served as subjects and were administered both the SCL-90 and the MMPI prior to participation in clinical therapeutic drug trials. The MMPI was scored for the Wiggins content scales and the Tryon cluster scales in addition to the standard clinical scales. Comparisons of the nine primary symptom dimensions of the SCL-90 with the set of MMPI scales reflected very high convergent validity for the SCL-90. Peak correlations were observed with like constructs on eight of the nine scales, with secondary patterns of correlations showing high interpretative consistency.
2,255 citations
TL;DR: Correlations of the self-ratings with stereotype scores and the Attitudes Toward Women Scale were low in magnitude, suggesting that sex role expectations do not distort self-concepts.
Abstract: Male (N = 248) and female (N = 282) subjects were given the Personal Attributes Questionnaire consisting of 55 bipolar attributes drawn from the Sex Role Stereotype Questionnaire by Rosenkrantz, Vogel, Bee, Broverman, and Broverman and were asked to rate themselves and then to compare directly the typical male and female college student. Self-ratings were divided into male-valued (stereotypically masculine attributes judged more desirable for both sexes), female-valued, and sex-specific items. Also administered was the Attitudes Toward Women Scale and a measure of social self-esteem. Correlations of the self-ratings with stereotype scores and the Attitudes Toward Women Scale were low in magnitude, suggesting that sex role expectations do not distort self-concepts. For both men and women, "femininity" on the female-valued self items and "masculinity" on the male-valued items were positively correlated, and both significantly related to self-esteem. The implications of the results for a concept of masculinity and femininity as a duality, characteristic of all individuals, and the use of the self-rating scales for measuring masculinity, femininity, and androgyny were discussed.
1,637 citations
TL;DR: In this article, an analysis of theory and research in social psychology reveals that while methods of research are scientific in character, theories of social behavior are primarily reflections of contemporary history, and the dissemination of psychological knowledge modifies the patterns of behavior upon which the knowledge is based.
Abstract: An analysis of theory and research in social psychology reveals that while methods of research are scientific in character, theories of social behavior are primarily reflections of contemporary history. The dissemination of psychological knowledge modifies the patterns of behavior upon which the knowledge is based. It does so because of the prescriptive bias of psychological theorizing, the liberating effects of knowledge, and the resistance based on common values of freedom and individuality. In addition, theoretical premises are based primarily on acquired dispositions. As the culture changes, such dispositions are altered, and the premises are often invalidated. Several modifications in the scope and methods of social psychology are derived from this analysis.
1,599 citations
1,317 citations