Materials for high temperature acoustic and vibration sensors: A review
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compared various commercial methods and materials for acoustic transduction, identifying their advantages and limitations, and concluded that the piezoelectric approach offers several advantages, including design cost and simplicity.
About: This article is published in Applied Acoustics.The article was published on 1994-01-01. It has received 608 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Piezoelectric sensor.
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TL;DR: In this article, a figure of merit analysis for key devices is presented and used to contrast lead-containing and lead-free piezoceramics for demanding applications with high reliability, displacements and frequency as well as a wide temperature range.
Abstract: After twenty years of partly quiet and ten years of partly enthusiastic research into lead-free piezoceramics there are now clear prospects for transfer into applications in some areas. This mimics prior research into eliminating lead from other technologies that resulted in restricted lead use in batteries and dwindling use in other applications. A figure of merit analysis for key devices is presented and used to contrast lead-containing and lead-free piezoceramics. A number of existing applications emerge, where the usage of lead-free piezoceramics may be envisaged in the near future. A sufficient transition period to ensure reliability, however, is required. The use of lead-free piezoceramics for demanding applications with high reliability, displacements and frequency as well as a wide temperature range appears to remain in the distant future. New devices are outlined, where the figure of merit suggests skipping lead-containing piezoceramics altogether. Suggestions for the next pertinent research requirements are provided.
966 citations
TL;DR: A detailed overview of the energy harvesting technologies associated with piezoelectric materials along with the closely related sub-classes of pyroelectrics and ferro-electrics can be found in this article.
Abstract: This review provides a detailed overview of the energy harvesting technologies associated with piezoelectric materials along with the closely related sub-classes of pyroelectrics and ferroelectrics. These properties are, in many cases, present in the same material, providing the intriguing prospect of a material that can harvest energy from multiple sources including vibration, thermal fluctuations and light. Piezoelectric materials are initially discussed in the context of harvesting mechanical energy from vibrations using inertial energy harvesting, which relies on the resistance of a mass to acceleration, and kinematic energy harvesting which directly couples the energy harvester to the relative movement of different parts of a source. Issues related to mode of operation, loss mechanisms and using non-linearity to enhance the operating frequency range are described along with the potential materials that could be employed for harvesting vibrations at elevated temperatures. In addition to inorganic piezoelectric materials, compliant piezoelectric materials are also discussed. Piezoelectric energy harvesting devices are complex multi-physics systems requiring advanced methodologies to maximise their performance. The research effort to develop optimisation methods for complex piezoelectric energy harvesters is then reviewed. The use of ferroelectric or multi-ferroic materials to convert light into chemical or electrical energy is then described in applications where the internal electric field can prevent electron–hole recombination or enhance chemical reactions at the ferroelectric surface. Finally, pyroelectric harvesting generates power from temperature fluctuations and this review covers the modes of pyroelectric harvesting such as simple resistive loading and Olsen cycles. Nano-scale pyroelectric systems and novel micro-electro-mechanical-systems designed to increase the operating frequency are discussed.
882 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a morphotropic phase boundary (MPB) piezoelectric with ferroelectric phase transition (Tc) exceeding that of PbZrO3-PbTiO3 (PZT) was investigated.
Abstract: New morphotropic phase boundary (MPB) piezoelectrics, with ferroelectric phase transition (Tc) exceeding that of PbZrO3–PbTiO3 (PZT), were investigated. Based on a perovskite tolerance factor-Tc relationship, new high Tc MPB systems were projected in the Bi(Me)O3–PbTiO3 system, where Me is a relatively large B+3-site cation. For the (1-x)BiScO3–(x)PbTiO3 solid solution, a MPB was found at x-0.64 separating the rhombohedral and tetragonal phases, with correspondingly enhanced dielectric and piezoelectric properties. A transition temperature Tc of ~ 450°C was determined with evidence of Tc's on the order of ≥ 600°C in the BiInO3 and BiYbO3 analogues, though issues of perovskite stability remain for the smaller tolerance end-member systems.
769 citations
TL;DR: This communication reports a hightemperature piezoelectric material that exhibits a good balance between high maximum use temperature and large piez Zoelectricity, achieved by the combination of the discovery of a phase transition in scandium aluminum nitride (ScxAl1 xN) alloy thin films and the use of dual co-sputtering, which leads to nonequilibrium alloy thin Films.
Abstract: Adv. Mater. 2009, 21, 593–596 2009 WILEY-VCH Verlag Gm The industrial demand for higher-temperature piezoelectric sensors is drastically increasing, for the control of automobile, aircraft, and turbine engines and the monitoring of furnace and reactor systems, because environmental problems, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) reduction, are becoming more globally serious. The sensors are also desirable for health monitoring coal-fired electric-generation plants and nuclear plants. It is generally known that piezoelectric materials with a higher Curie temperature possess a lower piezoelectric coefficient. Furthermore, the results of a study (Fig. 1) of the relationship between maximum use temperature and piezoelectric coefficient d33 shows that the piezoelectric materials with a higher maximum use temperature possess a lower piezoelectric coefficient d33. [3–9] For example, the Curie temperature and piezoelectric coefficient d33 of lead zirconium titanate (PZT), which is widely used in many electronic devices, are 250 8C and 410 pCN , respectively. The maximum use temperature and d33 of aluminum nitride (AlN), which is a typical hightemperature piezoelectric material, are 1150 8C and 5.5 pCN . It is difficult to achieve a good balance between high maximum use temperature and large piezoelectricity in a material, and no effective piezoelectric materials with these characteristics have yet been found. In this communication, we report a hightemperature piezoelectric material that exhibits a good balance between high maximum use temperature and large piezoelectricity. This was achieved by the combination of the discovery of a phase transition in scandium aluminum nitride (ScxAl1 xN) alloy thin films and the use of dual co-sputtering, which leads to nonequilibrium alloy thin films. Sc0.43Al0.57N alloys exhibit a large piezoelectric coefficient d33 of 27.6 pCN , which is at least 500% larger than AlN. The large piezoelectric coefficient d33 is the highest piezoelectric response among the tetrahedrally bonded semiconductors, despite the fact that the crystal structure of scandium nitride (ScN) is rock-salt (nonpolar). Moreover, the large piezoelectricity is not changed by annealing at 500 8C for 56 h under vacuum. This work demonstrates the new route to design of this high-temperature piezoelectric material. ScN has a rock-salt structure (nonpolar). However, Takeuchi reported the existence of a (meta)stable wurtzite structure in ScN, and the possible fabrication of Sc-IIIA-N nitrides by firstprinciples calculations. Farrer et al. predicted that the wurtzite structure is unstable in ScN, and that the hexagonal structure is (meta)stable in ScN, unlike the wurtzite structure. The piezoelectric responses of hexagonal ScxGa1 xN and ScxIn1 xN alloys can be enhanced by an isostructural phase transition (from wurtzite to layered hexagonal). However, the piezoelectric responses and Curie temperatures of the nitride alloys have not yet been confirmed by experiments. AlN, GaN, and InN are IIIA nitrides and have a wurtzite structure (polar). In particular, the thermal stability and piezoelectricity of AlN are the highest among the IIIA nitrides. AlN is a piezoelectric material compatible with the Complementary metal–oxide– semiconductor (CMOS) manufacturing process, and is a promising material for integrated sensors/actuators on silicon substrates. Wurtzite and rocksalt structures have rather different lattice forms and unit sizes. The formation of
666 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss properties relevant to sensor applications, including piezoelectric materials that are commercially available and those that are under development, including oxyborate [ReCa4O (BO3)3] single crystals.
Abstract: Piezoelectric materials that can function at high temperatures without failure are desired for structural health monitoring and/or nondestructive evaluation of the next generation turbines, more efficient jet engines, steam, and nuclear/electrical power plants. The operational temperature range of smart transducers is limited by the sensing capability of the piezoelectric material at elevated temperatures, increased conductivity and mechanical attenuation, variation of the piezoelectric properties with temperature. This article discusses properties relevant to sensor applications, including piezoelectric materials that are commercially available and those that are under development. Compared to ferroelectric polycrystalline materials, piezoelectric single crystals avoid domain-related aging behavior, while possessing high electrical resistivities and low losses, with excellent thermal property stability. Of particular interest is oxyborate [ReCa4O (BO3)3] single crystals for ultrahigh temperature applications (>1000°C). These crystals offer piezoelectric coefficients deff, and electromechanical coupling factors keff, on the order of 3–16 pC/N and 6%–31%, respectively, significantly higher than those values of α-quartz piezocrystals (~2 pC/N and 8%). Furthermore, the absence of phase transitions prior to their melting points ~1500°C, together with ultrahigh electrical resistivities (>106 Ω·cm at 1000°C) and thermal stability of piezoelectric properties (< 20% variations in the range of room temperature ~1000°C), allow potential operation at extreme temperature and harsh environments.
634 citations
References
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TL;DR: In this article, four topics in the field of electronic ceramics are reviewed: multilayer ceramic capacitors, piezoelectric ceramic, electrooptic and ferroelectric thin films.
Abstract: Four topics in the field of electronic ceramics are reviewed: multilayer ceramic capacitors, piezoelectric ceramics, electrooptic ceramics, and ferroelectric thin films. They all are related to ferroelectric ceramic materials. The scope of this review is limited to oxide compounds, because oxide ferroelectrics, for the most part, exhibit the most useful properties and have found the most applications. The underlying physical concepts, ceramic and/or thin-film fabrication, structure/property relationships, specific applications, and future prospects in each of the four electronic ceramic application areas are discussed. >
162 citations
TL;DR: Ferroelectricity was observed in a lanthanum titanate single crystal (La2Ti2O7), a monoclinic crystal of the space group C22-P21 as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Ferroelectricity was observed in a lanthanum titanate single crystal (La2Ti2O7), a monoclinic crystal of the space group C22-P21. The Curie temperature was found to be about 1500°C. It was determined by a D-E hysteresis loop at room temperature that the spontaneous polarization Ps = 5 μC/cm2 and that the coercive field Ec = 45 kV/cm. Ferroelectric domains were observed using a crystal etched by an aqueous solution of nitric acid. The La2Ti2O7crystal showed strong piezoelectric and linear electro-optic effects: electromechanical coupling factor k22 = 0.29; half-wave voltage [E l]δ/2 = 2000 V at a wavelength of 6328 A.
162 citations
01 Nov 1991
TL;DR: In this paper, Li et al. reported that La[sub 2]Ti [sub 2 ]O[sub 7] powders are prepared using three different techniques. Single-phase material is obtained at 1150[degrees] C by calcination of mixed oxides, at 1000[degree] C with molten salt synthesis, and at 850[degreed by evaporative decomposition of solutions.
Abstract: This paper reports that La[sub 2]Ti[sub 2]O[sub 7] powders are prepared using three different techniques. Single-phase material is obtained at 1150[degrees] C by calcination of mixed oxides, at 1000[degrees] C by molten salt synthesis, and at 850[degrees] C by evaporative decomposition of solutions. Particle sizes and morphologies of the powders differ substantially as does the sintered microstructures and dielectric properties. Very dense (99%), translucent, grain-oriented lanthanum titanate is fabricated by hot-forging at 1300[degrees] C under a 200-kg load. Anisotropy is demonstrated by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, thermal expansion, and dielectric measurements.
102 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of high-temperature aluminium alloys, steels and nickel alloys are discussed, referring to alloy types, characteristics and applications, with particular emphasis on defect tolerance considerations.
Abstract: Materials that allow operation at high temperature are essential in many industries from material producing and processing to transportation and power generation. After brief comments on typical operating environments, high-temperature aluminium alloys, steels and nickel alloys are discussed, referring to alloy types, characteristics and applications. Future development possibilities are indicated. The engineering ceramics silicon nitride and silicon carbide are discussed with particular emphasis on defect tolerance considerations. The various forms and applications of high-temperature carbon, including carbon-carbon composite, are included and a discussion on “engineered materials” concepts, such as thermal insulators and ablative materials, concludes the review.
96 citations