Maturity of judgment in adolescence: Psychosocial factors in adolescent decision making.

doi:10.1007/BF01499023

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Maturity of judgment in adolescence: Psychosocial factors in adolescent decision making.

Journal Article•DOI•

Maturity of judgment in adolescence: Psychosocial factors in adolescent decision making.

Laurence Steinberg¹, Elizabeth Cauffman¹•Institutions (1)

Temple University¹

01 Jun 1996-Law and Human Behavior (Springer)-Vol. 20, Iss: 3, pp 249-272

TL;DR: This article examined research and theory on three psychosocial aspects of maturity of judgment: responsibility, temperance, and perspective, and found that the greatest differences are found in comparisons between early adolescents versus middle and late adolescents.

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Abstract: To date, analyses of differences between adolescents' and adults' judgment have emphasized age differences in cognitive factors presumed to affect decision making. In contrast, this article examines research and theory on threepsychosocial aspects of maturity of judgment: responsibility, temperance, and perspective. For several psychosocial dimensions of maturity that are likely to affect judgment, the existing pvidence, while indirect and imperfect, indicates that the greatest differences are found in comparisons between early adolescents versus middle and late adolescents. Developmental research on maturity that focuses specifically on mid-and late adolescence, that simultaneously examines both cognitive and noncognitive factors, and that investigates the relation between these factors and the ability to make good decisions is greatly needed.

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Journal Article•DOI•

A Social Neuroscience Perspective on Adolescent Risk-Taking.

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Laurence Steinberg¹•Institutions (1)

Temple University¹

01 Mar 2008-Developmental Review

TL;DR: This article proposes a framework for theory and research on risk-taking that is informed by developmental neuroscience, and finds that changes in the brain's cognitive control system - changes which improve individuals' capacity for self-regulation - occur across adolescence and young adulthood.

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2,857 citations

Cites background from "Maturity of judgment in adolescence..."

...…and increasing the salience of the risks associated with making a poor or potentially dangerous decision has comparable effects on adolescents and adults (Millstein & Halpern-Felsher, 2002; Reyna & Farley, 2006; Steinberg & Cauffman, 1996; see also Rivers, Reyna, & Mills, 2008, this issue)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Cognitive and affective development in adolescence

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Laurence Steinberg¹•Institutions (1)

Temple University¹

01 Feb 2005-Trends in Cognitive Sciences

TL;DR: Taken together, these developments reinforce the emerging understanding of adolescence as a critical or sensitive period for a reorganization of regulatory systems, a reorganizations that is fraught with both risks and opportunities.

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2,324 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: an experimental study.

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Margo Gardner¹, Laurence Steinberg¹•Institutions (1)

Temple University¹

01 Jul 2005-Developmental Psychology

TL;DR: The idea that adolescents are more inclined toward risky behavior and risky decision making than are adults and that peer influence plays an important role in explaining risky behavior during adolescence is supported.

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Abstract: In this study, 306 individuals in 3 age groups--adolescents (13-16), youths (18-22), and adults (24 and older)--completed 2 questionnaire measures assessing risk preference and risky decision making, and 1 behavioral task measuring risk taking. Participants in each age group were randomly assigned to complete the measures either alone or with 2 same-aged peers. Analyses indicated that (a) risk taking and risky decision making decreased with age; (b) participants took more risks, focused more on the benefits than the costs of risky behavior, and made riskier decisions when in peer groups than alone; and (c) peer effects on risk taking and risky decision making were stronger among adolescents and youths than adults. These findings support the idea that adolescents are more inclined toward risky behavior and risky decision making than are adults and that peer influence plays an important role in explaining risky behavior during adolescence.

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1,874 citations

Cites background from "Maturity of judgment in adolescence..."

...This has prompted some to argue that age differences in risky behavior may be better accounted for by differences in psychosocial functioning than by differences in more cognitive aspects of risk orientation, such as risk preference (Cauffman, 1996; Cauffman & Steinberg, 2000; Steinberg & Cauffman, 1996 )....
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...Some have argued that age differences in psychosocial capacities such as impulse control or sensation seeking play an important role (see Steinberg & Cauffman, 1996)....
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...These authors suggest that typical laboratory studies of risky decision making fail to consider the emotional and social contexts in which risk taking actually occurs (Cauffman & Steinberg, 2000; Scott, Reppucci, & Woolard, 1995; Steinberg, 2004; Steinberg & Cauffman, 1996)....
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...Compared with adults, adolescents have limited abilities in areas of psychosocial functioning, such as self-reliance, which likely interfere with the ability to act independently of the influence of others (Cauffman, 1996; Cauffman & Steinberg, 2000; Steinberg & Cauffman, 1996)....
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...These authors suggest that typical laboratory studies of risky decision making fail to consider the emotional and social contexts in which risk taking actually occurs (Cauffman & Steinberg, 2000; Scott, Reppucci, & Woolard, 1995; Steinberg, 2004; Steinberg & Cauffman, 1996 )....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Risk Taking in Adolescence: What Changes, and Why?

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Laurence Steinberg¹•Institutions (1)

Temple University¹

01 Jun 2004-Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

TL;DR: The present analysis suggests that the greater propensity of adolescents to take risks is not due to age differences in risk perception or appraisal, but to age Differences in psychosocial factors that influence self‐regulation.

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Abstract: Extant studies of age differences in cognitive processes relevant to risk taking and decision making, such as risk perception and risk appraisal, indicate few significant age differences in factors that might explain why adolescents engage in more risk taking than adults The present analysis suggests that the greater propensity of adolescents to take risks is not due to age differences in risk perception or appraisal, but to age differences in psychosocial factors that influence self-regulation It is argued that adolescence is a period of heightened vulnerability to risk taking because of a disjunction between novelty and sensation seeking (both of which increase dramatically at puberty) and the development of self-regulatory competence (which does not fully mature until early adulthood) This disjunction is biologically driven, normative, and unlikely to be remedied through educational interventions designed to change adolescents' perception, appraisal, or understanding of risk Interventions should begin from the premise that adolescents are inherently more likely than adults to take risks, and should focus on reducing the harm associated with risk-taking behavior

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899 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

(Im)maturity of judgment in adolescence: Why adolescents may be less culpable than adults.

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Elizabeth Cauffman¹, Laurence Steinberg¹•Institutions (1)

University of Pittsburgh¹

01 Dec 2000-Behavioral Sciences & The Law

TL;DR: Findings call into question recent arguments, derived from studies of logical reasoning, that adolescents and adults are equally competent and that laws and social policies should treat them as such.

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Abstract: A crucial step in the establishment of effective policies and regulations concerning legal decisions involving juveniles is the development of a complete understanding of the many factors-psychosocial as well as cognitive-that affect the evolution of judgment over the course of adolescence and into adulthood. This study examines the influence of three psychosocial factors (responsibility, perspective, and temperance) on maturity of judgment in a sample of over 1,000 participants ranging in age from 12 to 48 years. Participants completed assessments of their psychosocial maturity in the aforementioned domains and responded to a series of hypothetical decision-making dilemmas about potentially antisocial or risky behavior. Socially responsible decision making is significantly more common among young adults than among adolescents, but does not increase appreciably after age 19. Individuals exhibiting higher levels of responsibility, perspective, and temperance displayed more mature decision-making than those with lower scores on these psychosocial factors, regardless of age. Adolescents, on average, scored significantly worse than adults, but individual differences in judgment within each adolescent age group were considerable. These findings call into question recent arguments, derived from studies of logical reasoning, that adolescents and adults are equally competent and that laws and social policies should treat them as such.

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570 citations

Cites background from "Maturity of judgment in adolescence..."

...The second point about maturity of judgment is that within the framework we have advanced (Cauffman & Steinberg, 1995; Steinberg & Cauffman, 1996), judgment is neither exclusively cognitive nor exclusively psychosocial; it is the byproduct of both sets of in¯uences....
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...Under the law, one's level of culpability may depend upon the degree of maturity of the process through which a decision was made....
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...…some research to date on the development of various aspects of responsibility, perspective, and temperance during adolescence (for a review, see Steinberg & Cauffman, 1996), few studies have compared adolescents and adults directly on these dimensions, and fewer still have attempted to examine…...
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...In several publications (e.g., Cauffman & Steinberg, 1995; Steinberg & Cauffman, 1996), we have proposed a model of maturity of judgment that emphasizes three Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Behav....
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...…argued that there may be developmental differences between adolescents and adults in non-cognitive realms that account for age differences in behavior and that may have implications for assessments of culpability (e.g., Cauffman & Steinberg, 1995; Scott et al., 1995; Steinberg & Cauffman, 1996)....
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References

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TL;DR: Erikson as mentioned in this paper describes a process that is located both in the core of the individual and in the inner space of the communal culture, and discusses the connection between individual struggles and social order.

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Abstract: Identity, Erikson writes, is an unfathomable as it is all-pervasive. It deals with a process that is located both in the core of the individual and in the core of the communal culture. As the culture changes, new kinds of identity questions arise-Erikson comments, for example, on issues of social protest and changing gender roles that were particular to the 1960s. Representing two decades of groundbreaking work, the essays are not so much a systematic formulation of theory as an evolving report that is both clinical and theoretical. The subjects range from "creative confusion" in two famous lives-the dramatist George Bernard Shaw and the philosopher William James-to the connection between individual struggles and social order. "Race and the Wider Identity" and the controversial "Womanhood and the Inner Space" are included in the collection.

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14,906 citations

"Maturity of judgment in adolescence..." refers background in this paper

...The dominant theoretical framework in the study of adolescent identity development is that of Erik Erikson (1968)....
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...To the extent, then, that maturity of judgment goes hand in hand with consolidation of a sense of identity, research in the Eriksonian tradition suggests that most individuals would not be expected to display consistently mature judgment until the age of 18, at the earliest....
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...According to Erikson, adolescence is a time of role experimentation and exploration of the self, and it is through these processes that the adolescent establishes a coherent sense of identity--a sense of knowing who one is and where one is headed....
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...In some respects, the pattern here is not unlike that observed in the Eriksonian studies of identity development, although the consolidation of self-esteem may occur somewhat earlier and may take place more gradually than the consolidation of identity....
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...From the Eriksonian vantage point, individuals would be unlikely to display mature judgment during the period of experimentation and exploration (a period known as the "psychosocial moratorium"), since a coherent sense of identity has not yet been established....
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Abstract: VOLUME 1. 1. Developmental Science, Developmental Systems, and Contemporary Theories of Human Development (Richard M. Lerner). 2. Developmental Psychology: Philosophy, Concepts, Methodology (Willis F. Overton). 3. The Making of Developmental Psychology (Robert B. Cairns and Beverley D. Cairns). 4. Developmental Epistemology and Implications for Methodology (Jaan Valsiner). 5. The Significance of Biology for Human Development: A Developmental Psychobiological Systems Views (Gilbert Gottlieb, Douglas Wahlsten and Robert Lickliter). 6. Dynamic Systems Theories (Esther Thelen and Linda B. Smith). 7. Dynamic Development of Action and Thought (Kurt W Fischer and Thomas R. Bidell). 8. The Person in Context: A Holistic-Interactionistic Approach (David Magnusson and Hakan Stattin). 9. The Developing Person: An Experiential Perspective (Kevin Rathunde and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi). 10. Action Perspectives on Human Development (J. Brandstadter). 11. 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Bates). 4. Biology, Culture, and Temperamental Biases (Jerome Kagan and Nathan A. Fox). 5. Emotional Development: Action, Communication, and Understanding (Carolyn Saarni, Joseph J. Campos, Linda A. Camras and David Witherington). 6. Personality Development (Avshalom Caspi) and Rebecca L. Shiner. 7. Socialization Processes (Daphne Blunt Bugental and Joan E. Grusec). 8. Socialization in the Family: Etnnic and Ecological Perspectives (Ross D. Parke and Raymond Buriel). 9. The Self (Susan Harter). 10. Peer Interactions, Relationships, and Groups (Kenneth H. Rubin, William M. Bulkowski and Jeffrey G. Parker). 11. Prosocial Development (Nany Eisenberg, Richard A. Fabes and Tracy L. Spinrad). 12. Aggression and Antisocial Behavior in Youth (Kenneth A. Dodge, John D. Coie and Donald Lynam). 13. The Development of Morality (Elliot Turiel). 14. Gender Development (Diane N. Ruble, Carol Lynn martin and Sheri A. Berebaum). 15. Development of Achievement Motivation (Allan Wigfield, Jacquelynne S. Eccles, Ulrich Schiefele, Robert W. Rosser and Pamela Davis-Kean). 16. Adolescent Development in Interpersonal Context (W. Andrew Collins and Laurence Steinberg). Author Index. Subject Index. VOLUME 4. PART I: INTRODUCTION. Applying Research to Practice (K. Renninger & I. Sigel). PART II: RESEARCH ADVANCED AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE IN EDUCATION. 1. Early Childhood Development and Education (M. Hyson, et al.). 2. Assessments of Early Reading (S. Paris & A. Paris). 3. Becoming Bilingual, Biliterate, and Bicultural (C. Snow & J. Kang). 4. Mathematical Thinking and Learning (E. De Corte & L. Verschaffel). 5. Scientific Thinking and Science Literacy (R. Lehrer & L. Schauble). 6. Character Education (D. Lapsley & D. Narvaez). 7. Learning Environments (P. Blumenfeld, et al.). PART III: RESEARCH ADVANCED AND IMPLICATIONS FOR CLINICAL APPLICATIONS. 8. Self-REgulations and Effort Investment (M. Boekaerts). 9. Risk and Prevention (R. Selman & A. Dray). 10. Learning Disabilities (V. Berninger). 11. Mental Retardation (R. Hodapp & E. Dykens). 12. Developmental Psychopathology and Preventive Intervention (D. Cicchetti & S. Toth). 13. Families and Early Childhood Interventions (D. Powell). 14. School-based Social and Emotional Learning Programs (J. Kress & M. Elias). PART IV: RESEARCH ADVANCED AND IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL POLICY AND SOCIAL ACTION. 15. Cultural Pathways Through Human Development (P. Greenfield, et al.). 16. Children and War Trauma (A. Klingman). 17. The Child and them Law (M. Bruck, et al.). 18. Media and Popular Culture (G. Comstock & E. Scharrer). 19. Children's Health and Education (C. Ramey, et al.). 20. Parenting Science and Practice (M. Bornstein). 21. Nonparental Child Care (M. Lamb & L. Ahnert). 22. Research to Practice Redefined (I. Sigel). Afterword.

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Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach to socialization

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Journal Article•DOI•

Sensation seeking in England and America: Cross-cultural, age, and sex comparisons.

[...]

Marvin Zuckerman, Sybil B.G. Eysenck, Hans J. Eysenck

01 Feb 1978-Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

TL;DR: A new form of the Sensation-Seeking Scale, applicable to both samples, was constructed, and three of the four factors showed good crossnational and cross-sex reliability.

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Abstract: This study compared the factor structure of the Sensation-Seeking Scale (SSS) in English and American samples, and a new form of the SSS, applicable to both samples, was constructed. Three of the four factors showed good crossnational and cross-sex reliability. English and American males did not differ on the total SSS score, but American females scored higher than English females. Males in both countries scored higher than females on the total SSS score and on the Thrill and Adventure-Seeking and Disinhibition subscales. Significant age declines occurred for both sexes, particularly on Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Disinhibition.

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1,873 citations

"Maturity of judgment in adolescence..." refers background in this paper

...…Petersen, & Schulenberg, 1984): The few extant comparisons of adults and adolescents suggest that thrill seeking and disinhibition (as assessed via measures of sensation seeking) may be higher during adolescence than adulthood (Giambra, Camp, & Grodsky, 1992; Zuckerman, Eysenck, and Eysenck, 1978)....
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