Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene
18 Jul 2008-Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science)-Vol. 321, Iss: 5887, pp 385-388
TL;DR: Graphene is established as the strongest material ever measured, and atomically perfect nanoscale materials can be mechanically tested to deformations well beyond the linear regime.
Abstract: We measured the elastic properties and intrinsic breaking strength of free-standing monolayer graphene membranes by nanoindentation in an atomic force microscope. The force-displacement behavior is interpreted within a framework of nonlinear elastic stress-strain response, and yields second- and third-order elastic stiffnesses of 340 newtons per meter (N m(-1)) and -690 Nm(-1), respectively. The breaking strength is 42 N m(-1) and represents the intrinsic strength of a defect-free sheet. These quantities correspond to a Young's modulus of E = 1.0 terapascals, third-order elastic stiffness of D = -2.0 terapascals, and intrinsic strength of sigma(int) = 130 gigapascals for bulk graphite. These experiments establish graphene as the strongest material ever measured, and show that atomically perfect nanoscale materials can be mechanically tested to deformations well beyond the linear regime.
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TL;DR: Graphene is a new and exciting material that has attracted much attention in the last decade and is being extensively explored because of its properties, which have been described with so many superlatives.
Abstract: Graphene is a new and exciting material that has attracted much attention in the last decade and is being extensively explored because of its properties, which have been described with so many superlatives. Production of graphene for large scale application is still a major challenge. Top-down graphene exfoliation methods from graphite, such as liquid-phase exfoliation which is promising because of low cost and high scalability potential will be briefly discussed. We also analyze the challenges and possibilities of using graphene as a nanofiller in polymer composites which has resulted in enhanced electrical, mechanical and thermal properties. In this review, we take a panoramic approach to give insight on the different aspects of graphene such as properties, graphite-based production methods and also examples of graphene application in polymer composites and which will be beneficial to both novice and experts.
275 citations
TL;DR: Local bond average (LBA) as mentioned in this paper has been proposed to compare the measurable quantities of a specimen to the identities of its representative bonds and the energetic responses of these bonds (bond nature, order, length and strength) to external stimuli, such as changes in temperatures and coordination environments.
274 citations
Cites background from "Measurement of the Elastic Properti..."
...[151] measured the elastic properties and intrinsic breaking strength of freestanding monolayer graphene membranes by nanoindentation in an atomic force microscope....
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...335 nm thick of the monolayer graphene [151], it is found that the elastic modulus of the graphene is 1....
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TL;DR: The high stability in electronic performance of the devices upon bending up to ±2.2 mm in compressive and tensile modes, and the ability to recover electrical properties after degradation upon annealing, reveal the efficacy of using 2D materials for creating highly flexible and transparent devices.
Abstract: A highly flexible and transparent transistor is developed based on an exfoliated MoS2 channel and CVD-grown graphene source/drain electrodes. Introducing the 2D nanomaterials provides a high mechanical flexibility, optical transmittance (∼74%), and current on/off ratio (>10(4)) with an average field effect mobility of ∼4.7 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1), all of which cannot be achieved by other transistors consisting of a MoS2 active channel/metal electrodes or graphene channel/graphene electrodes. In particular, a low Schottky barrier (∼22 meV) forms at the MoS2 /graphene interface, which is comparable to the MoS2 /metal interface. The high stability in electronic performance of the devices upon bending up to ±2.2 mm in compressive and tensile modes, and the ability to recover electrical properties after degradation upon annealing, reveal the efficacy of using 2D materials for creating highly flexible and transparent devices.
274 citations
TL;DR: It is demonstrated that, in general, multilayer graphene will give rise to higher levels of reinforcement than monolayer material, with the optimum number of layers depending upon the separation of the graphene flakes in the nanocomposite.
Abstract: The stress transfer between the internal layers of multilayer graphene within polymer-based nanocomposites has been investigated from the stress-induced shifts of the 2D Raman band. This has been undertaken through the study of the deformation of an ideal composite system where the graphene flakes were placed upon the surface of a polymer beam and then coated with an epoxy polymer. It is found that the rate of band shift per unit strain for a monolayer graphene flake is virtually independent of whether it has one or two polymer interfaces (i.e., with or without an epoxy top coating). In contrast, the rate of band shift is lower for an uncoated bilayer specimen than a coated one, indicating relatively poor stress transfer between the graphene layers. Mapping of the strain in the coated bilayer regions has shown that there is strain continuity between adjacent monolayer and bilayer regions, indicating that they give rise to similar levels of reinforcement. Strain-induced Raman band shifts have also been eva...
273 citations
Cites background from "Measurement of the Elastic Properti..."
...The mechanical properties of graphene are also very promising, with AFM nanoindentation of graphene layers finding a Young's modulus on the order of 1 TPa and an intrinsic strength of around 130 GPa.(9) These properties make it one of the stiffest and strongest materials ever measured and an ideal candidate for use as a reinforcement inhigh-performance composites....
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...VOL. 6 ’ NO. 3 ’ 2086–2095 ’ 2012 www.acsnano.org 2086 February 26, 2012 C 2012 American Chemical Society G raphene is one of the most exciting topics in materials science and condensed matter physics1 with good prospects for applications.2,3 It was first isolated in Manchester in 2004,4 and since that time the majority of the research effort has been concentrated upon investigating its electronic properties, aimed at using graphene in applications such as electronic devices.5,6 In recent times, however, because of its interesting and unusual electronic properties, bilayer graphene has attracted particular interest.7,8 The mechanical properties of graphene are also very promising, with AFM nanoindentation of graphene layers finding a Young's modulus on the order of 1 TPa and an intrinsic strength of around 130 GPa.9 These properties make it one of the stiffest and strongest materials ever measured and an ideal candidate for use as a reinforcement inhigh-performance composites....
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TL;DR: The most recently developed functionally graded graphene platelets reinforced composite (FG-GPLRC) where GPLs are non-uniformly dispersed with more GPLs in the area where they are most needed to achieve significantly improved mechanical performance has opened up a new avenue for the development of next generation structural forms with an excellent combination of high stiffness, light weight and multi-functionality.
272 citations
References
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TL;DR: This work shows that graphene's electronic structure is captured in its Raman spectrum that clearly evolves with the number of layers, and allows unambiguous, high-throughput, nondestructive identification of graphene layers, which is critically lacking in this emerging research area.
Abstract: Graphene is the two-dimensional building block for carbon allotropes of every other dimensionality We show that its electronic structure is captured in its Raman spectrum that clearly evolves with the number of layers The D peak second order changes in shape, width, and position for an increasing number of layers, reflecting the change in the electron bands via a double resonant Raman process The G peak slightly down-shifts This allows unambiguous, high-throughput, nondestructive identification of graphene layers, which is critically lacking in this emerging research area
13,474 citations
TL;DR: By using micromechanical cleavage, a variety of 2D crystals including single layers of boron nitride, graphite, several dichalcogenides, and complex oxides are prepared and studied.
Abstract: We report free-standing atomic crystals that are strictly 2D and can be viewed as individual atomic planes pulled out of bulk crystals or as unrolled single-wall nanotubes. By using micromechanical cleavage, we have prepared and studied a variety of 2D crystals including single layers of boron nitride, graphite, several dichalcogenides, and complex oxides. These atomically thin sheets (essentially gigantic 2D molecules unprotected from the immediate environment) are stable under ambient conditions, exhibit high crystal quality, and are continuous on a macroscopic scale.
10,586 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the effect of surface scratches on the mechanical strength of solids, and some general conclusions were reached which appear to have a direct bearing on the problem of rupture, from an engineering standpoint, and also on the larger question of the nature of intermolecular cohesion.
Abstract: In the course of an investigation of the effect of surface scratches on the mechanical strength of solids, some general conclusions were reached which appear to have a direct bearing on the problem of rupture, from an engineering standpoint, and also on the larger question of the nature of intermolecular cohesion. The original object of the work, which was carried out at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, was the discovery of the effect of surface treatment—such as, for instance, filing, grinding or polishing—on the strength of metallic machine parts subjected to alternating or repeated loads. In the case of steel, and some other metals in common use, the results of fatigue tests indicated that the range of alternating stress which could be permanently sustained by the material was smaller than the range within which it was sensibly elastic, after being subjected to a great number of reversals. Hence it was inferred that the safe range of loading of a part, having a scratched or grooved surface of a given type, should be capable of estimation with the help of one of the two hypotheses of rupture commonly used for solids which are elastic to fracture. According to these hypotheses rupture may be expected if (a) the maximum tensile stress, ( b ) the maximum extension, exceeds a certain critical value. Moreover, as the behaviour of the materials under consideration, within the safe range of alternating stress, shows very little departure from Hooke’s law, it was thought that the necessary stress and strain calculations could be performed by means of the mathematical theory of elasticity.
10,162 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: In this paper, the physical properties of crystals systematically in tensor notation are presented, presenting tensor properties in terms of their common mathematical basis and the thermodynamic relations between them.
Abstract: First published in 1957, this classic study has been reissued in a paperback version that includes an additional chapter bringing the material up to date. The author formulates the physical properties of crystals systematically in tensor notation, presenting tensor properties in terms of their common mathematical basis and the thermodynamic relations between them. The mathematical groundwork is laid in a discussion of tensors of the first and second ranks. Tensors of higher ranks and matrix methods are then introduced as natural developments of the theory. A similar pattern is followed in discussing thermodynamic and optical aspects.
8,520 citations
TL;DR: The tensile strengths of individual multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were measured with a "nanostressing stage" located within a scanning electron microscope and a variety of structures were revealed, such as a nanotube ribbon, a wave pattern, and partial radial collapse.
Abstract: The tensile strengths of individual multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were measured with a “nanostressing stage” located within a scanning electron microscope. The tensile-loading experiment was prepared and observed entirely within the microscope and was recorded on video. The MWCNTs broke in the outermost layer (“sword-in-sheath” failure), and the tensile strength of this layer ranged from 11 to 63 gigapascals for the set of 19 MWCNTs that were loaded. Analysis of the stress-strain curves for individual MWCNTs indicated that the Young's modulus E of the outermost layer varied from 270 to 950 gigapascals. Transmission electron microscopic examination of the broken nanotube fragments revealed a variety of structures, such as a nanotube ribbon, a wave pattern, and partial radial collapse.
5,011 citations