Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene
18 Jul 2008-Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science)-Vol. 321, Iss: 5887, pp 385-388
TL;DR: Graphene is established as the strongest material ever measured, and atomically perfect nanoscale materials can be mechanically tested to deformations well beyond the linear regime.
Abstract: We measured the elastic properties and intrinsic breaking strength of free-standing monolayer graphene membranes by nanoindentation in an atomic force microscope. The force-displacement behavior is interpreted within a framework of nonlinear elastic stress-strain response, and yields second- and third-order elastic stiffnesses of 340 newtons per meter (N m(-1)) and -690 Nm(-1), respectively. The breaking strength is 42 N m(-1) and represents the intrinsic strength of a defect-free sheet. These quantities correspond to a Young's modulus of E = 1.0 terapascals, third-order elastic stiffness of D = -2.0 terapascals, and intrinsic strength of sigma(int) = 130 gigapascals for bulk graphite. These experiments establish graphene as the strongest material ever measured, and show that atomically perfect nanoscale materials can be mechanically tested to deformations well beyond the linear regime.
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TL;DR: A facile strategy to synthesize silica nanoparticles-coated graphene oxide (GO-SiO2) nanohybrids in a water-alcohol mixture at room temperature shows good solution-based processibility and paves the way for making large-area superhydrophilic surface without extra process treatments and damaging the intrinsic structure of substrates.
Abstract: We report a facile strategy to synthesize silica nanoparticles-coated graphene oxide (GO–SiO2) nanohybrids in a water–alcohol mixture at room temperature. AFM observations revealed that silica nanoparticles with ca. 50 nm in size were densely and evenly covered on graphene oxide sheets. Due to the space layer of silica nanoparticles, micro-scale GO–SiO2 hybrid plates could be individually dispersed in water and polar organic solvents, promising good solution-based processibility. The growth process of GO-supported silica is traced by TGA and XRD measurements, showing that 24 hours is enough to achieve a fine cover effect for the disappearance of (002) diffraction peak of GO. Based on the high dense overlaying of silica nanoparticles, up to micro-scale silica sheets with thickness of ca. 8 nm were readily fabricated by burning GO–SiO2 at 650 °C in air. Likewise, a centimeter-scale semitransparent film of silica nanosheets was prepared by calcining a GO–SiO2 film. Interestingly, the GO–SiO2 nanohybrids exhibit excellent hydrophilic nature and can be directly applied as a general kind of building blocks to construct large-area superhydrophilic surfaces on arbitrary substrates (e.g., lotus leaf, ceramic tile and polypropylene) through the simple drop-coating method. Such a coating methodology paves the way for making large-area superhydrophilic surface without extra process treatments and damaging the intrinsic structure of substrates.
225 citations
TL;DR: The theoretical framework of the composite, the synthetic strategies for the preparation and modification of graphene-based TiO(2) photocatalysts, and applications of the composites are reviewed, with particular attention on the photodegradation of pollutants and photoc atalytic water splitting for hydrogen generation.
Abstract: Graphene is one of the most promising materials in the field of nanotechnology and has attracted a tremendous amount of research interest in recent years. Due to its large specific surface area, high thermal conductivity, and superior electron mobility, graphene is regarded as an extremely attractive component for the preparation of composite materials. At the same time, the use of photocatalysts, particularly TiO(2), has also been widely studied for their potential in addressing various energy and environmental-related issues. However, bare TiO(2) suffers from low efficiency and a narrow light-response range. Therefore, the combination of graphene and TiO(2) is currently one of the most active interdisciplinary research areas and demonstrations of photocatalytic enhancement are abundant. This Review presents and discusses the current development of graphene-based TiO(2) photocatalysts. The theoretical framework of the composite, the synthetic strategies for the preparation and modification of graphene-based TiO(2) photocatalysts, and applications of the composite are reviewed, with particular attention on the photodegradation of pollutants and photocatalytic water splitting for hydrogen generation.
225 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors review recent progress in the tailored assembly of carbon nanotubes and graphene into three-dimensional architectures with particular emphasis on their own research employing self-assembly principles.
Abstract: This Feature Article reviews recent progress in the tailored assembly of carbon nanotubes and graphene into three-dimensional architectures with particular emphasis on our own research employing self-assembly principles. Carbon nanotubes and graphene can be assembled into macroporous films, hollow spherical capsules, or hollow nanotubes, via directed assembly from solvent dispersion. This approach is cost-effective and beneficial for large-scale assembly, but pre-requests stable dispersion in a solvent medium. Directed growth from a nanopatterned catalyst array is another promising approach, which enables the control of morphology and properties of graphitic materials as well as their assembly. In addition, the aforementioned two approaches can be synergistically integrated to generate a carbon hybrid assembly consisting of vertical carbon nanotubes grown on flexible graphene films. Tailored assembly relying on scalable self-assembly principles offer viable routes that are scalable for mass production towards the ultimate utilization of graphitic carbon materials in nanoelectronics, displays, sensors, energy storage/conversion devices, and so on, including future flexible devices.
225 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a scalable process for the fabrication of free-standing graphene sheets for various applications is presented, where anionic surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate is used to avoid agglomeration of the exfoliated flakes.
225 citations
TL;DR: It is shown that an NPG membrane can maintain its mechanical integrity in RO but that the choice of substrate for graphene is critical to this performance, and that NPG membranes exhibit an unusual mechanical behavior in which greater porosity may help the membrane withstand even higher pressures.
Abstract: Recent advances in the development of nanoporous graphene (NPG) hold promise for the future of water supply by reverse osmosis (RO) desalination. But while previous studies have highlighted the potential of NPG as an RO membrane, there is less understanding as to whether NPG is strong enough to maintain its mechanical integrity under the high hydraulic pressures inherent to the RO desalination process. Here, we show that an NPG membrane can maintain its mechanical integrity in RO but that the choice of substrate for graphene is critical to this performance. Using molecular dynamics simulations and continuum fracture mechanics, we show that an appropriate substrate with openings smaller than 1 μm would allow NPG to withstand pressures exceeding 57 MPa (570 bar) or ten times more than typical pressures for seawater RO. Furthermore, we demonstrate that NPG membranes exhibit an unusual mechanical behavior in which greater porosity may help the membrane withstand even higher pressures.
225 citations
References
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TL;DR: This work shows that graphene's electronic structure is captured in its Raman spectrum that clearly evolves with the number of layers, and allows unambiguous, high-throughput, nondestructive identification of graphene layers, which is critically lacking in this emerging research area.
Abstract: Graphene is the two-dimensional building block for carbon allotropes of every other dimensionality We show that its electronic structure is captured in its Raman spectrum that clearly evolves with the number of layers The D peak second order changes in shape, width, and position for an increasing number of layers, reflecting the change in the electron bands via a double resonant Raman process The G peak slightly down-shifts This allows unambiguous, high-throughput, nondestructive identification of graphene layers, which is critically lacking in this emerging research area
13,474 citations
TL;DR: By using micromechanical cleavage, a variety of 2D crystals including single layers of boron nitride, graphite, several dichalcogenides, and complex oxides are prepared and studied.
Abstract: We report free-standing atomic crystals that are strictly 2D and can be viewed as individual atomic planes pulled out of bulk crystals or as unrolled single-wall nanotubes. By using micromechanical cleavage, we have prepared and studied a variety of 2D crystals including single layers of boron nitride, graphite, several dichalcogenides, and complex oxides. These atomically thin sheets (essentially gigantic 2D molecules unprotected from the immediate environment) are stable under ambient conditions, exhibit high crystal quality, and are continuous on a macroscopic scale.
10,586 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the effect of surface scratches on the mechanical strength of solids, and some general conclusions were reached which appear to have a direct bearing on the problem of rupture, from an engineering standpoint, and also on the larger question of the nature of intermolecular cohesion.
Abstract: In the course of an investigation of the effect of surface scratches on the mechanical strength of solids, some general conclusions were reached which appear to have a direct bearing on the problem of rupture, from an engineering standpoint, and also on the larger question of the nature of intermolecular cohesion. The original object of the work, which was carried out at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, was the discovery of the effect of surface treatment—such as, for instance, filing, grinding or polishing—on the strength of metallic machine parts subjected to alternating or repeated loads. In the case of steel, and some other metals in common use, the results of fatigue tests indicated that the range of alternating stress which could be permanently sustained by the material was smaller than the range within which it was sensibly elastic, after being subjected to a great number of reversals. Hence it was inferred that the safe range of loading of a part, having a scratched or grooved surface of a given type, should be capable of estimation with the help of one of the two hypotheses of rupture commonly used for solids which are elastic to fracture. According to these hypotheses rupture may be expected if (a) the maximum tensile stress, ( b ) the maximum extension, exceeds a certain critical value. Moreover, as the behaviour of the materials under consideration, within the safe range of alternating stress, shows very little departure from Hooke’s law, it was thought that the necessary stress and strain calculations could be performed by means of the mathematical theory of elasticity.
10,162 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: In this paper, the physical properties of crystals systematically in tensor notation are presented, presenting tensor properties in terms of their common mathematical basis and the thermodynamic relations between them.
Abstract: First published in 1957, this classic study has been reissued in a paperback version that includes an additional chapter bringing the material up to date. The author formulates the physical properties of crystals systematically in tensor notation, presenting tensor properties in terms of their common mathematical basis and the thermodynamic relations between them. The mathematical groundwork is laid in a discussion of tensors of the first and second ranks. Tensors of higher ranks and matrix methods are then introduced as natural developments of the theory. A similar pattern is followed in discussing thermodynamic and optical aspects.
8,520 citations
TL;DR: The tensile strengths of individual multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were measured with a "nanostressing stage" located within a scanning electron microscope and a variety of structures were revealed, such as a nanotube ribbon, a wave pattern, and partial radial collapse.
Abstract: The tensile strengths of individual multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were measured with a “nanostressing stage” located within a scanning electron microscope. The tensile-loading experiment was prepared and observed entirely within the microscope and was recorded on video. The MWCNTs broke in the outermost layer (“sword-in-sheath” failure), and the tensile strength of this layer ranged from 11 to 63 gigapascals for the set of 19 MWCNTs that were loaded. Analysis of the stress-strain curves for individual MWCNTs indicated that the Young's modulus E of the outermost layer varied from 270 to 950 gigapascals. Transmission electron microscopic examination of the broken nanotube fragments revealed a variety of structures, such as a nanotube ribbon, a wave pattern, and partial radial collapse.
5,011 citations