Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene
18 Jul 2008-Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science)-Vol. 321, Iss: 5887, pp 385-388
TL;DR: Graphene is established as the strongest material ever measured, and atomically perfect nanoscale materials can be mechanically tested to deformations well beyond the linear regime.
Abstract: We measured the elastic properties and intrinsic breaking strength of free-standing monolayer graphene membranes by nanoindentation in an atomic force microscope. The force-displacement behavior is interpreted within a framework of nonlinear elastic stress-strain response, and yields second- and third-order elastic stiffnesses of 340 newtons per meter (N m(-1)) and -690 Nm(-1), respectively. The breaking strength is 42 N m(-1) and represents the intrinsic strength of a defect-free sheet. These quantities correspond to a Young's modulus of E = 1.0 terapascals, third-order elastic stiffness of D = -2.0 terapascals, and intrinsic strength of sigma(int) = 130 gigapascals for bulk graphite. These experiments establish graphene as the strongest material ever measured, and show that atomically perfect nanoscale materials can be mechanically tested to deformations well beyond the linear regime.
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TL;DR: A synopsis of new advances towards carbon nanomaterials, especially carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, activated carbon and graphite, are given towards their synthesis, properties, and some applications as reported in the existing literatures.
Abstract: Carbon in its single entity and various forms has been used in technology and human life for many centuries. Since prehistoric times, carbon-based materials such as graphite, charcoal and carbon black have been used as writing and drawing materials. In the past two and a half decades or so, conjugated carbon nanomaterials, especially carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, activated carbon and graphite have been used as energy materials due to their exclusive properties. Due to their outstanding chemical, mechanical, electrical and thermal properties, carbon nanostructures have recently found application in many diverse areas; including drug delivery, electronics, composite materials, sensors, field emission devices, energy storage and conversion, etc. Following the global energy outlook, it is forecasted that the world energy demand will double by 2050. This calls for a new and efficient means to double the energy supply in order to meet the challenges that forge ahead. Carbon nanomaterials are believed to be appropriate and promising (when used as energy materials) to cushion the threat. Consequently, the amazing properties of these materials and greatest potentials towards greener and environment friendly synthesis methods and industrial scale production of carbon nanostructured materials is undoubtedly necessary and can therefore be glimpsed as the focal point of many researchers in science and technology in the 21st century. This is based on the incredible future that lies ahead with these smart carbon-based materials. This review is determined to give a synopsis of new advances towards their synthesis, properties, and some applications as reported in the existing literatures.
217 citations
Cites background from "Measurement of the Elastic Properti..."
...The uniqueness of carbon nanostructures (especially graphene) that attracted attention of the scientific communities is directly linked to its intrinsic strength, confirmed to exceed that of any other material [153], which is about 200 times that of steel but yet is malleable....
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TL;DR: This review summarizes the recent research progress in the structural stabilities, mechanical strength and deformation mechanism, strain-tunable energy storages, and catalytic and thermoelectric properties along with certain strain modifications and strain-controllable electronic/topological properties of MXenes from a combined theoretical and experimental perspective and illustrates their electronic origins.
Abstract: In the past decade, two-dimensional (2D) transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides (MXenes) have attracted attention and interest from the scientific community due to their superior mechanical strength and flexibility, physical/chemical properties, and multiple exciting functionalities. Among these materials, the ingenious and effective combination of the mechanical and functional properties of MXenes provides a promising opportunity for designing flexible and wearable devices. This review summarizes the recent research progress in the structural stabilities, mechanical strength and deformation mechanism, strain-tunable energy storages, and catalytic and thermoelectric properties along with certain strain modifications and strain-controllable electronic/topological properties of MXenes from a combined theoretical and experimental perspective and illustrates their electronic origins. Taking the design principles as a focus, the theoretical predictions provide guidance, while the experimental work gives a thorough validation, thus setting the foundation for the current scientific achievements, challenges, and prospects in the field of MXenes.
217 citations
TL;DR: A new method for the synthesis of graphene films directly on SiO(2)/Si substrates, even plastics and glass at close to room temperature (25-160 °C), which opens up new possibilities for the fabrication of multiple nanoelectronic devices.
Abstract: Current methods for fabricating graphene rely on its transfer from metal surfaces to substrates suitable for device applications This study demonstrates a transfer-free approach for growing graphene on substrates such as thermally oxidized silicon and plastic that forms the material underneath a nickel film, at the nickel–substrate interface
216 citations
TL;DR: It is found that moving a liquid-gas boundary along a piece of graphene can induce a waving potential of up to 0.1 V, which is a unique electrokinetic phenomenon and open prospects for functional sensors, such as tsunami monitors.
Abstract: Attempts have been made in flowing liquids over carbon nanomaterials to generate electric voltages, but a convincing or significant voltage is yet to be obtained. Here, Yin et al. show an electrokinetic process in which an electric potential of 0.1 V is generated in graphene by a moving liquid–gas boundary.
216 citations
TL;DR: The liquid-phase exfoliation of tin(II) sulfide to produce SnS nanosheets in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone is reported and quantum chemical calculations on the optoelectronic characteristics of bulk and 10-layer down to monolayer SnS have been performed using a quantum chemical density functional tight-binding approach.
Abstract: The liquid-phase exfoliation of tin(II) sulfide to produce SnS nanosheets in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone is reported. The material is characterized by Raman spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, lattice-resolution scanning transmission electron microscope imaging, and energy dispersive X-ray spectrum imaging. Quantum chemical calculations on the optoelectronic characteristics of bulk and 10-layer down to monolayer SnS have been performed using a quantum chemical density functional tight-binding approach. The optical properties of the SnS and centrifugally fractionated SnS nanosheet dispersions were compared to that predicted by theory. Through centrifugation, bilayer SnS nanosheets can be produced size-selectively. The scalable solution processing of semiconductor SnS nanosheets is the key to their commercial exploitation and is potentially an important step toward the realization of a future electronics industry based on two-dimensional materials.
216 citations
References
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TL;DR: This work shows that graphene's electronic structure is captured in its Raman spectrum that clearly evolves with the number of layers, and allows unambiguous, high-throughput, nondestructive identification of graphene layers, which is critically lacking in this emerging research area.
Abstract: Graphene is the two-dimensional building block for carbon allotropes of every other dimensionality We show that its electronic structure is captured in its Raman spectrum that clearly evolves with the number of layers The D peak second order changes in shape, width, and position for an increasing number of layers, reflecting the change in the electron bands via a double resonant Raman process The G peak slightly down-shifts This allows unambiguous, high-throughput, nondestructive identification of graphene layers, which is critically lacking in this emerging research area
13,474 citations
TL;DR: By using micromechanical cleavage, a variety of 2D crystals including single layers of boron nitride, graphite, several dichalcogenides, and complex oxides are prepared and studied.
Abstract: We report free-standing atomic crystals that are strictly 2D and can be viewed as individual atomic planes pulled out of bulk crystals or as unrolled single-wall nanotubes. By using micromechanical cleavage, we have prepared and studied a variety of 2D crystals including single layers of boron nitride, graphite, several dichalcogenides, and complex oxides. These atomically thin sheets (essentially gigantic 2D molecules unprotected from the immediate environment) are stable under ambient conditions, exhibit high crystal quality, and are continuous on a macroscopic scale.
10,586 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the effect of surface scratches on the mechanical strength of solids, and some general conclusions were reached which appear to have a direct bearing on the problem of rupture, from an engineering standpoint, and also on the larger question of the nature of intermolecular cohesion.
Abstract: In the course of an investigation of the effect of surface scratches on the mechanical strength of solids, some general conclusions were reached which appear to have a direct bearing on the problem of rupture, from an engineering standpoint, and also on the larger question of the nature of intermolecular cohesion. The original object of the work, which was carried out at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, was the discovery of the effect of surface treatment—such as, for instance, filing, grinding or polishing—on the strength of metallic machine parts subjected to alternating or repeated loads. In the case of steel, and some other metals in common use, the results of fatigue tests indicated that the range of alternating stress which could be permanently sustained by the material was smaller than the range within which it was sensibly elastic, after being subjected to a great number of reversals. Hence it was inferred that the safe range of loading of a part, having a scratched or grooved surface of a given type, should be capable of estimation with the help of one of the two hypotheses of rupture commonly used for solids which are elastic to fracture. According to these hypotheses rupture may be expected if (a) the maximum tensile stress, ( b ) the maximum extension, exceeds a certain critical value. Moreover, as the behaviour of the materials under consideration, within the safe range of alternating stress, shows very little departure from Hooke’s law, it was thought that the necessary stress and strain calculations could be performed by means of the mathematical theory of elasticity.
10,162 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: In this paper, the physical properties of crystals systematically in tensor notation are presented, presenting tensor properties in terms of their common mathematical basis and the thermodynamic relations between them.
Abstract: First published in 1957, this classic study has been reissued in a paperback version that includes an additional chapter bringing the material up to date. The author formulates the physical properties of crystals systematically in tensor notation, presenting tensor properties in terms of their common mathematical basis and the thermodynamic relations between them. The mathematical groundwork is laid in a discussion of tensors of the first and second ranks. Tensors of higher ranks and matrix methods are then introduced as natural developments of the theory. A similar pattern is followed in discussing thermodynamic and optical aspects.
8,520 citations
TL;DR: The tensile strengths of individual multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were measured with a "nanostressing stage" located within a scanning electron microscope and a variety of structures were revealed, such as a nanotube ribbon, a wave pattern, and partial radial collapse.
Abstract: The tensile strengths of individual multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were measured with a “nanostressing stage” located within a scanning electron microscope. The tensile-loading experiment was prepared and observed entirely within the microscope and was recorded on video. The MWCNTs broke in the outermost layer (“sword-in-sheath” failure), and the tensile strength of this layer ranged from 11 to 63 gigapascals for the set of 19 MWCNTs that were loaded. Analysis of the stress-strain curves for individual MWCNTs indicated that the Young's modulus E of the outermost layer varied from 270 to 950 gigapascals. Transmission electron microscopic examination of the broken nanotube fragments revealed a variety of structures, such as a nanotube ribbon, a wave pattern, and partial radial collapse.
5,011 citations