Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene
18 Jul 2008-Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science)-Vol. 321, Iss: 5887, pp 385-388
TL;DR: Graphene is established as the strongest material ever measured, and atomically perfect nanoscale materials can be mechanically tested to deformations well beyond the linear regime.
Abstract: We measured the elastic properties and intrinsic breaking strength of free-standing monolayer graphene membranes by nanoindentation in an atomic force microscope. The force-displacement behavior is interpreted within a framework of nonlinear elastic stress-strain response, and yields second- and third-order elastic stiffnesses of 340 newtons per meter (N m(-1)) and -690 Nm(-1), respectively. The breaking strength is 42 N m(-1) and represents the intrinsic strength of a defect-free sheet. These quantities correspond to a Young's modulus of E = 1.0 terapascals, third-order elastic stiffness of D = -2.0 terapascals, and intrinsic strength of sigma(int) = 130 gigapascals for bulk graphite. These experiments establish graphene as the strongest material ever measured, and show that atomically perfect nanoscale materials can be mechanically tested to deformations well beyond the linear regime.
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TL;DR: In this paper, the types of graphene-based nanofillers and the fabrication of graphene/polymer nanocomposites are discussed. And a brief summary of the practical applications of polymeric-graphene materials along with the current trends in the field is presented to progressively show future prospects for the development of these materials.
Abstract: This paper essentially reviews the types of graphene-based nanofillers and the fabrication of graphene/polymer nanocomposites. Routes to produce graphene materials, along with the methods and modifications used to efficiently disperse graphene nanofillers within the polymer matrices are discussed. In addition, the mechanical properties, morphological, structural, electrical conductivities, electrochemical activities, thermal stabilities, and gas barrier properties are evaluated, along with the direct relationships of these properties with the graphene–polymer interactions and their dispersion in the polymer matrix. Finally, a brief summary of the practical applications of polymeric-graphene materials along with the current trends in the field is presented to progressively show future prospects for the development of these materials.
209 citations
TL;DR: This review addresses the various methods available for the synthesis of graphene, with special reference to biological synthesis, and highlights the biological applications of graphene with a focus on cancer therapy, drug delivery, bio-imaging, and tissue engineering.
Abstract: Graphene is a two-dimensional atomic crystal, and since its development it has been applied in many novel ways in both research and industry. Graphene possesses unique properties, and it has been used in many applications including sensors, batteries, fuel cells, supercapacitors, transistors, components of high-strength machinery, and display screens in mobile devices. In the past decade, the biomedical applications of graphene have attracted much interest. Graphene has been reported to have antibacterial, antiplatelet, and anticancer activities. Several salient features of graphene make it a potential candidate for biological and biomedical applications. The synthesis, toxicity, biocompatibility, and biomedical applications of graphene are fundamental issues that require thorough investigation in any kind of applications related to human welfare. Therefore, this review addresses the various methods available for the synthesis of graphene, with special reference to biological synthesis, and highlights the biological applications of graphene with a focus on cancer therapy, drug delivery, bio-imaging, and tissue engineering, together with a brief discussion of the challenges and future perspectives of graphene. We hope to provide a comprehensive review of the latest progress in research on graphene, from synthesis to applications.
209 citations
TL;DR: In this article, Asian red ginseng was used for green reduction of chemically exfoliated graphene oxide (GO) into reduced graphene oxide(rGO), and the reduction level and electrical conductivity of the reduced GO sheets were comparable to those of hydrazine-rGO ones.
209 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the fracture strength of a hexagonal monolayer network of carbon atoms with Stone-Wales type defects and vacancies was investigated using molecular dynamics simulations at different temperatures.
209 citations
TL;DR: A promising cyanate ester nanocomposite with an excellent electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness (EMI SE) and high thermal conductivity was fabricated by compounding graphene nanosheets (GNSs) and magnetic carbonyl iron-nickel alloy powder (CINAP) via a solution blending method and subsequent hot-pressing as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: In this study, a promising cyanate ester nanocomposite with an excellent electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness (EMI SE) and high thermal conductivity was fabricated by compounding graphene nanosheets (GNSs) and magnetic carbonyl iron–nickel alloy powder (CINAP) via a solution blending method and subsequent hot-pressing. The obtained 5 wt% GNSs/cyanate ester (CE) nanocomposite possesses the outstanding EMI SE of 38 dB and this property was synergistically enhanced to attain the value of 55 dB with the presence of 20 wt% CINAP. In addition, the GNSs/CINAP/CE nanocomposite with 5 wt% GNSs and 15 wt% CINAP exhibits high thermal conductivity (K = 4.13 W m−1 K−1). This synergistic enhancement is significantly affected by the formation of the efficient 3D electric and thermally conductive pathways as well as the dispersion of the incorporated fillers. This highly thermally conducting CE nanocomposite with the efficient EMI shielding properties has a potential to be used in advanced electronic packaging.
209 citations
References
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TL;DR: This work shows that graphene's electronic structure is captured in its Raman spectrum that clearly evolves with the number of layers, and allows unambiguous, high-throughput, nondestructive identification of graphene layers, which is critically lacking in this emerging research area.
Abstract: Graphene is the two-dimensional building block for carbon allotropes of every other dimensionality We show that its electronic structure is captured in its Raman spectrum that clearly evolves with the number of layers The D peak second order changes in shape, width, and position for an increasing number of layers, reflecting the change in the electron bands via a double resonant Raman process The G peak slightly down-shifts This allows unambiguous, high-throughput, nondestructive identification of graphene layers, which is critically lacking in this emerging research area
13,474 citations
TL;DR: By using micromechanical cleavage, a variety of 2D crystals including single layers of boron nitride, graphite, several dichalcogenides, and complex oxides are prepared and studied.
Abstract: We report free-standing atomic crystals that are strictly 2D and can be viewed as individual atomic planes pulled out of bulk crystals or as unrolled single-wall nanotubes. By using micromechanical cleavage, we have prepared and studied a variety of 2D crystals including single layers of boron nitride, graphite, several dichalcogenides, and complex oxides. These atomically thin sheets (essentially gigantic 2D molecules unprotected from the immediate environment) are stable under ambient conditions, exhibit high crystal quality, and are continuous on a macroscopic scale.
10,586 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the effect of surface scratches on the mechanical strength of solids, and some general conclusions were reached which appear to have a direct bearing on the problem of rupture, from an engineering standpoint, and also on the larger question of the nature of intermolecular cohesion.
Abstract: In the course of an investigation of the effect of surface scratches on the mechanical strength of solids, some general conclusions were reached which appear to have a direct bearing on the problem of rupture, from an engineering standpoint, and also on the larger question of the nature of intermolecular cohesion. The original object of the work, which was carried out at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, was the discovery of the effect of surface treatment—such as, for instance, filing, grinding or polishing—on the strength of metallic machine parts subjected to alternating or repeated loads. In the case of steel, and some other metals in common use, the results of fatigue tests indicated that the range of alternating stress which could be permanently sustained by the material was smaller than the range within which it was sensibly elastic, after being subjected to a great number of reversals. Hence it was inferred that the safe range of loading of a part, having a scratched or grooved surface of a given type, should be capable of estimation with the help of one of the two hypotheses of rupture commonly used for solids which are elastic to fracture. According to these hypotheses rupture may be expected if (a) the maximum tensile stress, ( b ) the maximum extension, exceeds a certain critical value. Moreover, as the behaviour of the materials under consideration, within the safe range of alternating stress, shows very little departure from Hooke’s law, it was thought that the necessary stress and strain calculations could be performed by means of the mathematical theory of elasticity.
10,162 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: In this paper, the physical properties of crystals systematically in tensor notation are presented, presenting tensor properties in terms of their common mathematical basis and the thermodynamic relations between them.
Abstract: First published in 1957, this classic study has been reissued in a paperback version that includes an additional chapter bringing the material up to date. The author formulates the physical properties of crystals systematically in tensor notation, presenting tensor properties in terms of their common mathematical basis and the thermodynamic relations between them. The mathematical groundwork is laid in a discussion of tensors of the first and second ranks. Tensors of higher ranks and matrix methods are then introduced as natural developments of the theory. A similar pattern is followed in discussing thermodynamic and optical aspects.
8,520 citations
TL;DR: The tensile strengths of individual multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were measured with a "nanostressing stage" located within a scanning electron microscope and a variety of structures were revealed, such as a nanotube ribbon, a wave pattern, and partial radial collapse.
Abstract: The tensile strengths of individual multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were measured with a “nanostressing stage” located within a scanning electron microscope. The tensile-loading experiment was prepared and observed entirely within the microscope and was recorded on video. The MWCNTs broke in the outermost layer (“sword-in-sheath” failure), and the tensile strength of this layer ranged from 11 to 63 gigapascals for the set of 19 MWCNTs that were loaded. Analysis of the stress-strain curves for individual MWCNTs indicated that the Young's modulus E of the outermost layer varied from 270 to 950 gigapascals. Transmission electron microscopic examination of the broken nanotube fragments revealed a variety of structures, such as a nanotube ribbon, a wave pattern, and partial radial collapse.
5,011 citations