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Journal ArticleDOI

Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene

Changgu Lee1, Xiaoding Wei1, Jeffrey W. Kysar1, James Hone1, James Hone2 
18 Jul 2008-Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science)-Vol. 321, Iss: 5887, pp 385-388
TL;DR: Graphene is established as the strongest material ever measured, and atomically perfect nanoscale materials can be mechanically tested to deformations well beyond the linear regime.
Abstract: We measured the elastic properties and intrinsic breaking strength of free-standing monolayer graphene membranes by nanoindentation in an atomic force microscope. The force-displacement behavior is interpreted within a framework of nonlinear elastic stress-strain response, and yields second- and third-order elastic stiffnesses of 340 newtons per meter (N m(-1)) and -690 Nm(-1), respectively. The breaking strength is 42 N m(-1) and represents the intrinsic strength of a defect-free sheet. These quantities correspond to a Young's modulus of E = 1.0 terapascals, third-order elastic stiffness of D = -2.0 terapascals, and intrinsic strength of sigma(int) = 130 gigapascals for bulk graphite. These experiments establish graphene as the strongest material ever measured, and show that atomically perfect nanoscale materials can be mechanically tested to deformations well beyond the linear regime.

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Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, high-resolution modification of suspended multi-layer graphene sheets by controlled exposure to the focused electron beam of a transmission electron microscope was demonstrated, on timescales of a few seconds, including nanometer-scale pores, slits and gaps that are stable and do not evolve over time.
Abstract: We demonstrate high-resolution modification of suspended multi-layer graphene sheets by controlled exposure to the focused electron beam of a transmission electron microscope. We show that this technique can be used to realize, on timescales of a few seconds, a variety of features, including nanometer-scale pores, slits, and gaps that are stable and do not evolve over time. Despite the extreme thinness of the suspended graphene sheets, extensive removal of material to produce the desired feature geometries is found to not introduce long-range distortion of the suspended sheet structure.

510 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
14 Apr 2014-ACS Nano
TL;DR: The recent progress in photodetection based on graphene and graphene-like 2D materials is reviewed and the summary of some most important physical mechanisms, including photoelectric, photo-thermoelectric, and photo-bolometric regimes are started.
Abstract: Graphene and graphene-like two-dimensional (2D) materials have attracted much attention due to its extraordinary electronic and optical properties, which accommodate a large potential in optoelectronic applications such as photodetection. However, although much progress has been made, many challenges exist in fundamental and practical aspects hindering graphene and graphene-like 2D materials from photodetector and other photonic and optoelectronic applications. Here, we review the recent progress in photodetection based on graphene and graphene-like 2D materials and start with the summary of some most important physical mechanisms, including photoelectric, photo-thermoelectric, and photo-bolometric regimes. Then methodology-level discussions are given from viewpoints of state-of-the-art designs in device geometry and materials. It is worth emphasizing that emerging photodetection and photodetectors based on graphene-like 2D materials such as metal chalcogenide nanosheets are reviewed systematically. Finally, we conclude this review in a brief discussion with remaining challenges in photodetection of two-dimensional photonics and optoelectronics (2D POE) and note that complete understandings of 2D materials and 2D POE may inspire solar energy conversion and other new applications.

509 citations


Cites background from "Measurement of the Elastic Properti..."

  • ...These excellent optical properties, combined with the high Young's modulus (up to ∼1 TPa for defect-free graphene) and thermal conductivity (up to ∼5000 W/mK for suspended single-layer graphene at room temperature), offer promising prospect of graphene as supporting and/or active materials in a variety of functional devices suchas light-emittingdiodes, solar cells, photocatalysts, biosensors, and photodetectors.(7) 10...

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a nano-resolved analysis of polymeric coatings on graphene and combine optical microscopy and viability assays to assess the material cytocompatibility and influence on differentiation was performed.
Abstract: Graphene displays properties that make it appealing for neuroregenerative medicine, yet its interaction with peripheral neurons has been scarcely investigated. Here, we culture on graphene two established models for peripheral neurons: PC12 cells and DRG primary neurons. We perform a nano-resolved analysis of polymeric coatings on graphene and combine optical microscopy and viability assays to assess the material cytocompatibility and influence on differentiation. We find that differentiated PC12 cells display a remarkably increased neurite length on graphene (up to 27%) with respect to controls. Notably, DRG primary neurons survive both on bare and coated graphene. They present dense axonal networks on coated graphene, while they form cell islets characterized by dense axonal bundles on uncoated graphene. These findings indicate that graphene holds potential for nerve tissue regeneration and might pave the road to novel concepts of active nerve conduits.

505 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Graphene research has accelerated exponentially since 2004 when graphene was isolated and characterized for the first time utilizing the ‘Scotch Tape’ method by Geim and Novoselov and given the reports of unique electronic properties that followed.

504 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a homogeneous aqueous colloidal suspension of chemically cross-linked graphene oxide sheets was generated by addition of polyallylamine to an aqous suspension of graphene oxide, followed by sonication of the mixture.
Abstract: We report that a homogeneous aqueous colloidal suspension of chemically cross-linked graphene oxide sheets was generated by addition of polyallylamine to an aqueous suspension of graphene oxide sheets followed by sonication of the mixture This is the first example for producing a homogeneous colloidal suspension of cross-linked graphene sheets As a demonstration of the utility of such a colloidal suspension, “paper” material samples made by simple filtration from such a suspension of cross-linked graphene oxide sheets showed excellent mechanical stiffness and strength

503 citations

References
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This work shows that graphene's electronic structure is captured in its Raman spectrum that clearly evolves with the number of layers, and allows unambiguous, high-throughput, nondestructive identification of graphene layers, which is critically lacking in this emerging research area.
Abstract: Graphene is the two-dimensional building block for carbon allotropes of every other dimensionality We show that its electronic structure is captured in its Raman spectrum that clearly evolves with the number of layers The D peak second order changes in shape, width, and position for an increasing number of layers, reflecting the change in the electron bands via a double resonant Raman process The G peak slightly down-shifts This allows unambiguous, high-throughput, nondestructive identification of graphene layers, which is critically lacking in this emerging research area

13,474 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: By using micromechanical cleavage, a variety of 2D crystals including single layers of boron nitride, graphite, several dichalcogenides, and complex oxides are prepared and studied.
Abstract: We report free-standing atomic crystals that are strictly 2D and can be viewed as individual atomic planes pulled out of bulk crystals or as unrolled single-wall nanotubes. By using micromechanical cleavage, we have prepared and studied a variety of 2D crystals including single layers of boron nitride, graphite, several dichalcogenides, and complex oxides. These atomically thin sheets (essentially gigantic 2D molecules unprotected from the immediate environment) are stable under ambient conditions, exhibit high crystal quality, and are continuous on a macroscopic scale.

10,586 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the effect of surface scratches on the mechanical strength of solids, and some general conclusions were reached which appear to have a direct bearing on the problem of rupture, from an engineering standpoint, and also on the larger question of the nature of intermolecular cohesion.
Abstract: In the course of an investigation of the effect of surface scratches on the mechanical strength of solids, some general conclusions were reached which appear to have a direct bearing on the problem of rupture, from an engineering standpoint, and also on the larger question of the nature of intermolecular cohesion. The original object of the work, which was carried out at the Royal Aircraft Estab­lishment, was the discovery of the effect of surface treatment—such as, for instance, filing, grinding or polishing—on the strength of metallic machine parts subjected to alternating or repeated loads. In the case of steel, and some other metals in common use, the results of fatigue tests indicated that the range of alternating stress which could be permanently sustained by the material was smaller than the range within which it was sensibly elastic, after being subjected to a great number of reversals. Hence it was inferred that the safe range of loading of a part, having a scratched or grooved surface of a given type, should be capable of estimation with the help of one of the two hypotheses of rupture commonly used for solids which are elastic to fracture. According to these hypotheses rupture may be expected if (a) the maximum tensile stress, ( b ) the maximum extension, exceeds a certain critical value. Moreover, as the behaviour of the materials under consideration, within the safe range of alternating stress, shows very little departure from Hooke’s law, it was thought that the necessary stress and strain calculations could be performed by means of the mathematical theory of elasticity.

10,162 citations

Book
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: In this paper, the physical properties of crystals systematically in tensor notation are presented, presenting tensor properties in terms of their common mathematical basis and the thermodynamic relations between them.
Abstract: First published in 1957, this classic study has been reissued in a paperback version that includes an additional chapter bringing the material up to date. The author formulates the physical properties of crystals systematically in tensor notation, presenting tensor properties in terms of their common mathematical basis and the thermodynamic relations between them. The mathematical groundwork is laid in a discussion of tensors of the first and second ranks. Tensors of higher ranks and matrix methods are then introduced as natural developments of the theory. A similar pattern is followed in discussing thermodynamic and optical aspects.

8,520 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
28 Jan 2000-Science
TL;DR: The tensile strengths of individual multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were measured with a "nanostressing stage" located within a scanning electron microscope and a variety of structures were revealed, such as a nanotube ribbon, a wave pattern, and partial radial collapse.
Abstract: The tensile strengths of individual multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were measured with a “nanostressing stage” located within a scanning electron microscope. The tensile-loading experiment was prepared and observed entirely within the microscope and was recorded on video. The MWCNTs broke in the outermost layer (“sword-in-sheath” failure), and the tensile strength of this layer ranged from 11 to 63 gigapascals for the set of 19 MWCNTs that were loaded. Analysis of the stress-strain curves for individual MWCNTs indicated that the Young's modulus E of the outermost layer varied from 270 to 950 gigapascals. Transmission electron microscopic examination of the broken nanotube fragments revealed a variety of structures, such as a nanotube ribbon, a wave pattern, and partial radial collapse.

5,011 citations