Mechanisms of reduced and compensatory growth.
TL;DR: The role of plasma IGF-I during compensatory growth is not clear and must be explained in connection with changes of its binding proteins, which seem to have a permissive effect on growth.
About: This article is published in Domestic Animal Endocrinology.The article was published on 2000-08-01. It has received 425 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Compensatory growth (organism) & Growth factor.
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TL;DR: The traditional way of using feeding as a quality control tool in the production of meat is re-thinked and the potential of a nutrigenomic approach is introduced as a first step in the development of pro-active quality control systems which fulfil future demands from industry and consumers.
205 citations
TL;DR: Following a discussion of methods of analysis and their limitations, a series of growth simulations is presented to illustrate why the terms compensatory growth, recovery growth, and catch-up growth should not be used as synonyms.
Abstract: Compensatory growth refers to an animal’s ability to grow extremely rapidly after it has experienced a period of reduced growth. It is also widely held that the growth trajectories of animals showing compensatory growth converge towards those followed by conspecifics that have experienced favorable growth conditions throughout their lives. In other words, it is often assumed that animals undergoing compensatory growth also show some recovery, and thereby exhibit catch-up growth. This belief has resulted in the terms compensatory growth, recovery growth, and catch-up growth being used as synonyms, and has also created some problems with regard to data analysis and interpretation. Following a discussion of methods of analysis and their limitations, a series of growth simulations is presented to illustrate why the terms should not be used as synonyms. The simulations, based upon the assumption that compensatory growth results in a restoration of body composition (using condition index as a surrogate), show that compensatory growth is not always accompanied by a convergence of growth trajectories. Compensatory growth can occur in the absence of catch-up growth, and the simultaneous observation of compensatory growth and a recovery of body mass is a special combination of events. Further, it is possible for growth trajectories to converge even when animals that have experienced a period of reduced growth do not display compensatory growth. Definitions are proposed that distinguish between the terms compensatory growth, recovery growth, and catch-up growth, and guidelines are given relating to the analysis of the results of fish compensatory growth studies.
135 citations
Cites background from "Mechanisms of reduced and compensat..."
...In the context of compensatory growth there appears to be an initial accretion of LBM followed by accumulation of body fat (Harris et al. 1986; Wright and Russel 1991; Hornick et al. 2000; Johansen et al. 2001; Mitchell 2007; Martinez-Ramirez et al. 2009)....
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...The animal body comprises two major compartments; lean body mass (LBM) and body fat, the latter representing the major energy reserves (Hornick et al. 2000; Johansen et al. 2001; Forbes 2002; Mitchell 2007)....
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...…improve production efficiency and/or influence the composition of the saleable product (Wright and Russel 1991; Jobling 1994; Jobling et al. 1994; Hornick et al. 2000; Wang et al. 2000; Ali et al. 2003; Skalski et al. 2005; Mitchell 2007; Oh et al. 2008; Turano et al. 2008; Martinez-Ramirez et…...
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...There are, however, differences in the rates of change of the two compartments depending upon feeding conditions (Hornick et al. 2000; Johansen et al. 2001; Forbes 2002)....
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...…growth give priority to the restoration of body composition and energy reserves rather than body size (body length or mass) per se (Harris et al. 1986; Weatherley and Gill 1987; Broeckhuizen et al. 1994; Jobling 1994; Jobling and Johansen 1999; Hornick et al. 2000; Johansen et al. 2001)....
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TL;DR: In summary, feed restriction severely affected growth performance and lipid metabolism in broilers in the early period and might have induced prolonged metabolic programming in chicks and led to adult obesity.
132 citations
Cites background from "Mechanisms of reduced and compensat..."
...This might be caused by the low basal metabolism and thus allows the organism to spare energy by decreasing basal metabolism (Hornick et al., 2000)....
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...It is widely accepted that compensatory growth occurs so that animals reach a normal weight once (Hornick et al., 2000; Pinheiro et al., 2004)....
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...ate organism growth to reach the weight of animals (Hornick et al., 2000; Pinheiro et al., 2004)....
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...In addition, early feed restriction might have induced prolonged metabolic programming in chicks and led to adult obesity. ate organism growth to reach the weight of animals (Hornick et al., 2000; Pinheiro et al., 2004)....
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...Feed restriction reduces the growth rate of tissues, and some tissues (adipose tissue) react more sensitively (Hornick et al., 2000)....
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TL;DR: The results of the present study demonstrate a link between the magnitude of lipid stores, feed intake and weight gain, and provide some evidence for lipostatic appetite regulation in fish.
Abstract: Feed-restricted fish gain less body mass and storage reserves than well-fed fish, and reduced rates of gain often trigger compensatory responses, characterized by increased appetite (hyperphagia) and growth rate. The results of previous investigations have introduced a hypothesis in which adipose tissue (fat stores) had a regulatory role in governing appetite. An extension of this suggests that hyperphagia may relate to the severity of the feed restriction, and that the compensatory responses will cease once fat reserves are restored relative to body size. This was tested in two trials in which feed-restricted or -deprived postsmolt Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, became hyperphagic after transfer to excess feeding. At the end of the first trial, previously feed-restricted fish had fully compensated for their lost weight gain compared to continuously fed control fish, but had a leaner body composition (i.e. reduced energy stores) and were still showing signs of compensatory growth. In the second trial, feed deprivation drained body lipids and caused a stronger hyperphagic response than restrictive feeding, although it took longer to develop. Feed intake became coincident when fish had a similar body composition for size, but this occurred at different times. Hence, the fish that had been deprived of feed were smaller than the restricted fish at the end of the trial. The results of the present study demonstrate a link between the magnitude of lipid stores, feed intake and weight gain, and provide some evidence for lipostatic appetite regulation in fish.
118 citations
TL;DR: Alterations in expression of the tested metabolic-related genes and muscle-specific genes suggest that during both starvation and refeeding, changes in specific metabolic pathways initiate shifts in muscle that result mainly in the modification of myotube hypertrophy.
Abstract: Rainbow trout, as well as many other species of fish, demonstrate the ability to survive starvation for long periods of time. During starvation, growth rate is decreased and muscle exhibits signs of wasting. However, upon resumption of feeding, accelerated growth is often observed. Alterations in muscle metabolism occur during feed restriction and refeeding, although the ways in which these alterations affect the molecular pathways that control muscle growth have not been fully determined. To analyze changes in muscle metabolism and growth during starvation and refeeding, real-time PCR was used to test the expression of six metabolic-related genes and eight muscle-specific genes in rainbow trout white muscle prior to and after 30 days of starvation, and after 4 and 14 days of refeeding. The six metabolic-related genes chosen are indicative of specific metabolic pathways: glycolysis, glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and fatty acid formation. The eight muscle specific genes chosen are key components in muscle growth and structural integrity, i.e., MRFs, MEFs, myostatins, and myosin. Alterations in expression of the tested metabolic-related genes and muscle-specific genes suggest that during both starvation and refeeding, changes in specific metabolic pathways initiate shifts in muscle that result mainly in the modification of myotube hypertrophy. The expression levels of many of the metabolic-related genes were altered during the refeeding period compared to those observed before the starvation period began. However, the accelerated growth often observed during refeeding is likely driven by changes in normal muscle metabolism, and the altered expression observed here may be a demonstration of those changes.
112 citations
Cites background from "Mechanisms of reduced and compensat..."
...During refeeding, protein synthesis, first in the viscera and then in muscle, is accelerated relative to the rate of protein degradation (Hornick et al., 2000), restoring muscle...
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...It is possible that metabolic activities are altered in such situations, and are accompanied by an increased growth plane (Hornick et al., 2000)....
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...Following nutritional restriction, many organisms attempt to make up for the growth that was lost by accelerating growth (Hornick et al., 2000)....
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...During refeeding, protein synthesis, first in the viscera and then in muscle, is accelerated relative to the rate of protein degradation (Hornick et al., 2000), restoring muscle growth....
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...Muscle is one of the tissues that is considerably affected by starvation and refeeding (Hornick et al., 2000)....
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References
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TL;DR: While not definitively established, roles for placental lactogen and prolactin are attractive possibilities in homeorhetic regulation of maternal tissues to support pregnancy and the initiation of lactaion, respectively.
1,697 citations
TL;DR: The mechanisms whereby an animal is enabled to make recovery and the relative efficiencies of continuous and discontinuous growth are described.
Abstract: undernutrition . . . . . . ( I ) The recovery of weight . . . . . . (2) The recovery of conformation and composition . . IV. The mechanisms whereby an animal is enabled to make recovery . ( I ) Prolongation of the period of growth . . . . (2) Increase in rate of gain during re-alimentation . . V. The relative efficiencies of continuous and discontinuous growth . VI. The applications of compensatory growth to agriculture . .
526 citations
TL;DR: Upon realimentation, plasma GH concentrations decreased in both previously undernourished groups, with those fed 1% dry matter still having increased levels 10 days after refeeding, and plasma IGF-1 concentrations showed no periodicity.
Abstract: The relationship between plasma GH profiles and circulating concentrations of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) at three different planes of nutrition, chosen to represent a high, medium and low level of nutrition (3%, 1.8% and 1% dry matter of liveweight per day) was studied in 15 young Angus steers. All steers were maintained on 3% dry matter for 5 weeks, then on one of the three nutritional planes for 4 weeks and then all were returned to 3% dry matter for 3 weeks. Blood was sampled through jugular catheters at 15-min intervals for 25 h at the end of each phase of the study and additional samples were taken on 2 days each week. Pulsatile release of GH occurred episodically with a diurnal increase during night and morning hours only in steers on high nutritional intakes. Reduced feeding at both the medium and the low plane abolished the diurnal rhythm and significantly increased mean plasma GH concentrations, the amplitude of GH pulses and the area under the GH profiles. Baseline concentrations of GH and pulse frequency did not change through nutritional manipulation. Upon realimentation, plasma GH concentrations decreased in both previously undernourished groups, with those fed 1% dry matter still having increased levels 10 days after refeeding. Plasma IGF-1 concentrations showed no periodicity. With nutritional deprivation, a decrease in IGF-1 concentration was observed only at negative energy balance (1% group). In this group plasma IGF-1 concentrations were progressively restored within 1 week of realimentation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
233 citations
TL;DR: Results indicate that enhanced growth rates in the early phase of compensatory growth are associated with the physiological response of the GH-IGF-I-insulin axis coupled with reduced maintenance requirement due to slower metabolic rate in restricted-refed heifers.
Abstract: Twelve recently weaned Hereford crossbred heifers weighing 227 kg (12 kg SD) and aged 230 d ( 8 d SD) on d 0 were used to investigate physiological responses associated with compensatory growth. Six heifers were allotted to ad libitum intake ( ADLIB) and six were restricted to a maintenance diet for 95 d followed by realimentation ( REST ). Plasma collected from all heifers during feed restric- tion (d 0, 20, 48) and realimentation (d 104, 125, 153, 195) was analyzed for growth hormone ( GH) , insu- lin-like growth factor I ( IGF-I) , thyroid hormones (thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)), insulin, glucose, nonesterified fatty acids ( NEFA) , blood urea nitrogen ( BUN) , and 3-methyl histidine ( 3-MH ). Resting metabolic rate ( RMR) was measured 5 d before and 15 and 36 d after the beginning of realimentation. Feed restriction was associated with higher ( P .05) between treatments were observed on d 104 (d 10 of realimentation) and thereafter. Conversely, GH con- centration in REST heifers remained elevated through d 104 but dropped to ADLIB levels by d 125 (d 31 of realimentation). The T4 and T3 concentrations re- mained lower ( P < .05) in REST than in ADLIB heifers after 10 d of realimentation but rose to control levels by d 31 of realimentation. The RMR was lower ( P < .05) in REST than in ADLIB heifers 15 d into realimentation; however, no difference was found between treatments by d 36 of realimentation. These results indicate that enhanced growth rates in the early phase of compensatory growth are associated with the physiological response of the GH-IGF-I- insulin axis coupled with reduced maintenance re- quirement due to slower metabolic rate in restricted- refed heifers.
176 citations
TL;DR: Reduced NEg requirements and changes in gut fill accounted for most of the compensatory growth response exhibited in these steers, and net energy requirements for growth were approximately 18% lower for CG steers.
Abstract: The composition of carcass and noncarcass tissue growth was quantified by serial slaughter of 26 Angus x Hereford crossbred steers (initial age and weight 289 +/- 4 d and 245 +/- 4 kg) during continuous growth (CON) or compensatory growth (CG) after a period of growth restriction (.4 kg/d) from 245 to 325 kg BW. All steers were fed a 70% concentrate diet at ad libitum or restricted levels. Homogenized samples of 9-10-11th rib and noncarcass tissues were analyzed for nitrogen, fat, ash, and moisture. Growth rate from 325 to 500 kg BW was 1.54 and 1.16 kg/d for CG and CON steers. The weight of gut fill in CG steers was 10.8 kg less (P less than .05) before realimentation and 8.8 kg more (P less than .10) at 500 kg BW than in CON steers. The allometric accretive rates for carcass chemical components relative to the empty body were not affected by treatment. However, the accretive rates for CG steers were greater (P less than .01) for noncarcass protein (.821 vs .265), noncarcass water (.861 vs .507), and empty-body protein (.835 vs. .601) than for CON steers. Final empty-body fat was lower (P less than .001; 24.2 vs 32.4%) and empty-body protein higher (P less than .001; 16.6 vs 14.8%) in CG steers than in CON steers. Consequently, net energy requirements for growth (NEg) were approximately 18% lower for CG steers. We conclude that reduced NEg requirements and changes in gut fill accounted for most of the compensatory growth response exhibited in these steers.
168 citations