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Journal ArticleDOI

“Mini-mental state”: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician

TL;DR: A simplified, scored form of the cognitive mental status examination, the “Mini-Mental State” (MMS) which includes eleven questions, requires only 5-10 min to administer, and is therefore practical to use serially and routinely.
About: This article is published in Journal of Psychiatric Research.The article was published on 1975-11-01. It has received 76181 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Cognitive decline & Cognitive Intervention.
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The criteria proposed are intended to serve as a guide for the diagnosis of probable, possible, and definite Alzheimer's disease; these criteria will be revised as more definitive information becomes available.
Abstract: Clinical criteria for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease include insidious onset and progressive impairment of memory and other cognitive functions. There are no motor, sensory, or coordination deficits early in the disease. The diagnosis cannot be determined by laboratory tests. These tests are important primarily in identifying other possible causes of dementia that must be excluded before the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease may be made with confidence. Neuropsychological tests provide confirmatory evidence of the diagnosis of dementia and help to assess the course and response to therapy. The criteria proposed are intended to serve as a guide for the diagnosis of probable, possible, and definite Alzheimer's disease; these criteria will be revised as more definitive information become available.

26,847 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This study provides a potential standardized definition for frailty in community-dwelling older adults and offers concurrent and predictive validity for the definition, and finds that there is an intermediate stage identifying those at high risk of frailty.
Abstract: Background: Frailty is considered highly prevalent in old age and to confer high risk for falls, disability, hospitalization, and mortality. Frailty has been considered synonymous with disability, comorbidity, and other characteristics, but it is recognized that it may have a biologic basis and be a distinct clinical syndrome. A standardized definition has not yet been established. Methods: To develop and operationalize a phenotype of frailty in older adults and assess concurrent and predictive validity, the study used data from the Cardiovascular Health Study. Participants were 5,317 men and women 65 years and older (4,735 from an original cohort recruited in 1989-90 and 582 from an African American cohort recruited in 1992-93). Both cohorts received almost identical baseline evaluations and 7 and 4 years of follow-up, respectively, with annual examinations and surveillance for outcomes including incident disease, hospitalization, falls, disability, and mortality. Results: Frailty was defined as a clinical syndrome in which three or more of the following criteria were present: unintentional weight loss (10 lbs in past year), self-reported exhaustion, weakness (grip strength), slow walking speed, and low physical activity. The overall prevalence of frailty in this community-dwelling population was 6.9%; it increased with age and was greater in women than men. Four-year incidence was 7.2%. Frailty was associated with being African American, having lower education and income, poorer health, and having higher rates of comorbid chronic diseases and disability. There was overlap, but not concordance, in the cooccurrence of frailty, comorbidity, and disability. This frailty phenotype was independently predictive (over 3 years) of incident falls, worsening mobility or ADL disability, hospitalization, and death, with hazard ratios ranging from 1.82 to 4.46, unadjusted, and 1.29-2.24, adjusted for a number of health, disease, and social characteristics predictive of 5-year mortality. Intermediate frailty status, as indicated by the presence of one or two criteria, showed intermediate risk of these outcomes as well as increased risk of becoming frail over 3-4 years of follow-up (odds ratios for incident frailty = 4.51 unadjusted and 2.63 adjusted for covariates, compared to those with no frailty criteria at baseline). Conclusions: This study provides a potential standardized definition for frailty in community-dwelling older adults and offers concurrent and predictive validity for the definition. It also finds that there is an intermediate stage identifying those at high risk of frailty. Finally, it provides evidence that frailty is not synonymous with either comorbidity or disability, but comorbidity is an etiologic risk factor for, and disability is an outcome of, frailty. This provides a potential basis for clinical assessment for those who are frail or at risk, and for future research to develop interventions for frailty based on a standardized ascertainment of frailty.

16,255 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A 10‐minute cognitive screening tool (Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA) to assist first‐line physicians in detection of mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a clinical state that often progresses to dementia.
Abstract: Objectives: To develop a 10-minute cognitive screening tool (Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA) to assist first-line physicians in detection of mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a clinical state that often progresses to dementia. Design: Validation study. Setting: A community clinic and an academic center. Participants: Ninety-four patients meeting MCI clinical criteria supported by psychometric measures, 93 patients with mild Alzheimer's disease (AD) (Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) score≥17), and 90 healthy elderly controls (NC). Measurements: The MoCA and MMSE were administered to all participants, and sensitivity and specificity of both measures were assessed for detection of MCI and mild AD. Results: Using a cutoff score 26, the MMSE had a sensitivity of 18% to detect MCI, whereas the MoCA detected 90% of MCI subjects. In the mild AD group, the MMSE had a sensitivity of 78%, whereas the MoCA detected 100%. Specificity was excellent for both MMSE and MoCA (100% and 87%, respectively). Conclusion: MCI as an entity is evolving and somewhat controversial. The MoCA is a brief cognitive screening tool with high sensitivity and specificity for detecting MCI as currently conceptualized in patients performing in the normal range on the MMSE.

16,037 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Authors/Task Force Members: Piotr Ponikowski* (Chairperson) (Poland), Adriaan A. Voors* (Co-Chair person) (The Netherlands), Stefan D. Anker (Germany), Héctor Bueno (Spain), John G. F. Cleland (UK), Andrew J. S. Coats (UK)

13,400 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A new Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) designed specifically for rating depression in the elderly was tested for reliability and validity and compared with the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRS-D) and the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale(SDS) as discussed by the authors.

13,014 citations

References
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Book
01 Jan 1965

84 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Three parallel forms of the clinical tests of the sensorium were devised, tried out and modified on two groups of 24 subjects and correlated moderately well when repeated.
Abstract: Three parallel forms of the clinical tests of the sensorium were devised, tried out and modified on two groups of 24 subjects. The final versions were further assessed by using each form in turn with 108 psychiatric patients. The three forms of tests gave scores with very similar means and standard deviations. They correlated moderately well when repeated.

57 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The present paper has attempted to attack the problem of differential “memory function” by examining the discriminating power of certain test results as between “functional”, “doubtful” and “organic” groups of elderly patients, showing that the best discrimination between the groups is achieved by a simple perceptual task.
Abstract: 1. The aim of the research is to examine the relationship of certain aspects of mental functioning to the psychiatric illnesses of old age. The present paper has attempted to attack the problem of differential “memory function” by examining the discriminating power of certain test results as between “functional”, “doubtful” and “organic” groups of elderly patients. 2. The design of the present study shows that spuriously positive results may arise from inadequate control over factors contributing to the selection of the criterion groups. 3. The investigation fails to confirm, for the patients tested, the diagnostic usefulness of certain tests in common use. 4. The results fail to confirm the predictions of “Ribot's Law” as applied to memory in these elderly patients. 5. The study shows significant differences between the means of the results of the psychiatric groups on some tasks which appear to involve “memory function”. These differences cannot be accounted for merely in terms of group differences in general intelligence. The nature of the possible underlying “memory function” remains to be further examined. 6. The investigation so far shows that the best discrimination between the groups is achieved by a simple perceptual task (Bender Gestalt). 7. The study fails to show differences between groups on any of the tests which are sufficiently great to enable these tests to be immediately employed as useful diagnostic instruments.

55 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is shown that tests for senility should be short, especially those with oral questions, because of straying attention, impaired comprehension, and short retention, andPerseveration is greatly increased in senescence; it can be brought out merely by having a succession of short, varied items.
Abstract: A tentative battery of 25 short tests for the measurement of senescence is described ( cf. Table I). The scale is the result of the application of nearly 80 tests to senile patients in three London hospitals. It was administered in full to 38 patients in all, and the present findings refer to a group of 20 less seriously demented ones, with an age range of 68 to 83. The tests are classified into three groups according to the degree of difficulty experienced by the seniles (Table II). The divisions were made on the basis of a number of criteria which emerged during the working up of the results, and are only pointers to the kind of functions involved. Briefly, the most difficult tests were those in which subjects were required to break away from old mental habits and adapt to unfamiliar situations, tests of recent memory (logical), of judgment, planning, and reasoning, or embodying difficult or lengthy instructions. Less difficulty was found with such tests as rote memory, fluency of associations, simple arithmetic, and vocabulary. Performance seemed to be least affected on tests of visual recognition, old mental habits, and simple motor tasks. It is shown that tests for senility should be short, especially those with oral questions, because of straying attention, impaired comprehension, and short retention. Perseveration is greatly increased in senescence; it can be brought out merely by having a succession of short, varied items. There is a loss of steadiness and speed on the motor side. The disturbing effect of tests with a time element on the slower acting senile is noted. The present mental status of the patients is estimated on eleven tests which are scored on the (outmoded) mental age method (Table I): the average of these is between M.A. 10 and 11. This figure is compared with previous reports on the decline of intelligence. An estimate of the former mental status of each patient is made by means of efficiency quotients on part of the “Bellevue” scale. These relate each score to the average level for the peak age-group of 20 to 24 years (Table III). The use of the vocabulary score as an index of former level is discussed. A comparison of score variation within individuals with variation between individuals shows a ratio of the former to the latter of approximately 85 per cent. Variability of scores within individuals increases with age inside the patient group, also with lower intelligence. A shortened version of the scale, which takes about 40 minutes, is indicated (Table I).

19 citations