Modulation Techniques for Communication via Diffusion in Nanonetworks
05 Jun 2011-pp 1-5
TL;DR: Novel modulation techniques are proposed for coding and decoding information of the so-called messenger molecule concentration waves in nanonetworks that achieve high channel capacity values and exhibits more robustness against noise and requires less power.
Abstract: Communication via diffusion of molecules is an effective method for transporting information in nanonetworks. In this paper, novel modulation techniques called Concentration Shift Keying (CSK) and Molecule Shift Keying (MSK) are proposed for coding and decoding information of the so-called messenger molecule concentration waves in nanonetworks. The first technique, CSK, modulates the information via the variation in the concentration of the messenger molecules whereas MSK utilizes different types of messenger molecules to represent the information. Using simulation, the performance of these modulation techniques is evaluated in terms of susceptibility to noise and transmission power requirements. The new techniques achieve high channel capacity values, in particular, the MSK technique exhibits more robustness against noise and requires less power.
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TL;DR: A comprehensive survey of molecular communication (MC) through a communication engineering lens is provided in this paper, which includes different components of the MC transmitter and receiver, as well as the propagation and transport mechanisms.
Abstract: With much advancement in the field of nanotechnology, bioengineering, and synthetic biology over the past decade, microscales and nanoscales devices are becoming a reality. Yet the problem of engineering a reliable communication system between tiny devices is still an open problem. At the same time, despite the prevalence of radio communication, there are still areas where traditional electromagnetic waves find it difficult or expensive to reach. Points of interest in industry, cities, and medical applications often lie in embedded and entrenched areas, accessible only by ventricles at scales too small for conventional radio waves and microwaves, or they are located in such a way that directional high frequency systems are ineffective. Inspired by nature, one solution to these problems is molecular communication (MC), where chemical signals are used to transfer information. Although biologists have studied MC for decades, it has only been researched for roughly 10 year from a communication engineering lens. Significant number of papers have been published to date, but owing to the need for interdisciplinary work, much of the results are preliminary. In this survey, the recent advancements in the field of MC engineering are highlighted. First, the biological, chemical, and physical processes used by an MC system are discussed. This includes different components of the MC transmitter and receiver, as well as the propagation and transport mechanisms. Then, a comprehensive survey of some of the recent works on MC through a communication engineering lens is provided. The survey ends with a technology readiness analysis of MC and future research directions.
762 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors proposed a binary receiver detection scheme where the number of observed molecules is sampled at the time when the maximum number of molecules is expected, and the expected bit error probability is derived as a function of the current and all previously transmitted bits.
Abstract: This paper studies the mitigation of intersymbol interference in a diffusive molecular communication system using enzymes that freely diffuse in the propagation environment. The enzymes form reaction intermediates with information molecules and then degrade them so that they cannot interfere with future transmissions. A lower bound expression on the expected number of molecules measured at the receiver is derived. A simple binary receiver detection scheme is proposed where the number of observed molecules is sampled at the time when the maximum number of molecules is expected. Insight is also provided into the selection of an appropriate bit interval. The expected bit error probability is derived as a function of the current and all previously transmitted bits. Simulation results show the accuracy of the bit error probability expression and the improvement in communication performance by having active enzymes present.
303 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a receiver design for a diffusive molecular communication environment is presented, which includes flow in any direction, sources of information molecules in addition to the transmitter, and enzymes in the propagation environment to mitigate intersymbol interference.
Abstract: In this paper, we perform receiver design for a diffusive molecular communication environment. Our model includes flow in any direction, sources of information molecules in addition to the transmitter, and enzymes in the propagation environment to mitigate intersymbol interference. We characterize the mutual information between receiver observations to show how often independent observations can be made. We derive the maximum likelihood sequence detector to provide a lower bound on the bit error probability. We propose the family of weighted sum detectors for more practical implementation and derive their expected bit error probability. Under certain conditions, the performance of the optimal weighted sum detector is shown to be equivalent to a matched filter. Receiver simulation results show the tradeoff in detector complexity versus achievable bit error probability, and that a slow flow in any direction can improve the performance of a weighted sum detector.
242 citations
TL;DR: Analytical and numerical results confirm that the proposed modulation techniques using isomers achieve higher data transmission rate performance than the insulin based concepts.
Abstract: In this paper, we propose three novel modulation techniques, i.e., concentration-based, molecular-type-based, and molecular-ratio-based, using isomers as messenger molecules for nano communication networks via diffusion. To evaluate achievable rate performance, we compare the proposed techniques with conventional insulin-based concepts under practical scenarios. Analytical and numerical results confirm that the proposed modulation techniques using isomers achieve higher data transmission rate performance than the insulin based concepts. We also investigate the tradeoff between messenger sizes and modulation orders and provide guidelines for selecting from among several possible candidates.
234 citations
Cites background or methods from "Modulation Techniques for Communica..."
...Two such techniques proposed in [17] include the use of concentration and types of messenger molecules....
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...That is, at the receiver side, nanomachines will be inherently affected by a random noise [17]....
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...For simplicity, in the first we apply, as was done in [17], the AWGN model....
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...The authors in [16], [17] studied extensively the fundamentals of molecular communication via diffusion....
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...In analyzing their modulation techniques, however, [16], [17] did not clearly suggest concrete structures for the messenger molecules....
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TL;DR: A layered architecture approach is applied to molecular communication, decomposes complex molecular communication functionality into a set of manageable layers, identifies basic functionalities of each layer, and develops a descriptive model consisting of key components of the layer for each layer.
Abstract: Molecular communication is an emerging communication paradigm for biological nanomachines. It allows biological nanomachines to communicate through exchanging molecules in an aqueous environment and to perform collaborative tasks through integrating functionalities of individual biological nanomachines. This paper develops the layered architecture of molecular communication and describes research issues that molecular communication faces at each layer of the architecture. Specifically, this paper applies a layered architecture approach, traditionally used in communication networks, to molecular communication, decomposes complex molecular communication functionality into a set of manageable layers, identifies basic functionalities of each layer, and develops a descriptive model consisting of key components of the layer for each layer. This paper also discusses open research issues that need to be addressed at each layer. In addition, this paper provides an example design of targeted drug delivery, a nanomedical application, to illustrate how the layered architecture helps design an application of molecular communication. The primary contribution of this paper is to provide an in-depth architectural view of molecular communication. Establishing a layered architecture of molecular communication helps organize various research issues and design concerns into layers that are relatively independent of each other, and thus accelerates research in each layer and facilitates the design and development of applications of molecular communication.
230 citations
Additional excerpts
..., Molecule Shift Keying or MoSK) [70]–[73]....
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References
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TL;DR: The state-of-the-art in nano-machines, including architectural aspects, expected features of future nano-MACHines, and current developments are presented for a better understanding of nanonetwork scenarios and nanonetworks features and components are explained and compared with traditional communication networks.
1,210 citations
"Modulation Techniques for Communica..." refers background in this paper
...Inspired by the cellular biological communication systems, different communication methods for molecular communication systems have been proposed in the literature [1]....
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...Nanonetworking is a new communication paradigm that encompasses various communication methods that can be used to transmit information between micro- and/or nano-scale machines [1]....
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TL;DR: A new physical end-to-end (including the channel) model for molecular communication is introduced, which is related to a specific process involving particle exchanges, namely, particle emission, particle diffusion and particle reception.
Abstract: Molecular communication is a promising paradigm for nanoscale networks. The end-to-end (including the channel) models developed for classical wireless communication networks need to undergo a profound revision so that they can be applied for nanonetworks. Consequently, there is a need to develop new end-to-end (including the channel) models which can give new insights into the design of these nanoscale networks. The objective of this paper is to introduce a new physical end-to-end (including the channel) model for molecular communication. The new model is investigated by means of three modules, i.e., the transmitter, the signal propagation and the receiver. Each module is related to a specific process involving particle exchanges, namely, particle emission, particle diffusion and particle reception. The particle emission process involves the increase or decrease of the particle concentration rate in the environment according to a modulating input signal. The particle diffusion provides the propagation of particles from the transmitter to the receiver by means of the physics laws underlying particle diffusion in the space. The particle reception process is identified by the sensing of the particle concentration value at the receiver location. Numerical results are provided for three modules, as well as for the overall end-to-end model, in terms of normalized gain and delay as functions of the input frequency and of the transmission range.
549 citations
"Modulation Techniques for Communica..." refers methods in this paper
...Different channel models have been developed and the channel capacity of this communication system has been evaluated using these models in [7], [8], and [9]....
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Book•
15 Oct 1999
TL;DR: A glossary of words and phrases related to proteins, amino acids, and other substances used in medicine and chemistry, as well as other areas of science, which are suitable for topical application.
Abstract: ion — specific removal of bonded atom from a structure. A reaction that removes an atom from a structure. AC — alternating current. Accommodation — voluntarily thickening the lens of the eye to focus diverging rays of light from nearby objects on the fovea of the retina; visual focusing on nearby objects. Acellular — cell-free. Acetylcholine — a chemical neurotransmitter. Acetylcholinesterase — enzyme that rapidly degrades acetylcholine. Acidophilic — acid-loving. Acoustomechanical conversion — conversion of acoustic energy into mechanical energy. Action potential — complete sequence of electrical events accompanying and following the nerve impulse. Active site — the restricted part of a protein to which a substrate binds. Adduct — in chemistry, an addition product or complex; in biomechanics, to draw together physically separated components. Adiabatic — change in pressure or volume without loss or gain of heat. Adipocyte — fat cell. Adipose — fatty; pertaining to fat. ADP — adenosine diphosphate; has one energy-rich phosphate bond. Adrenergic — activated or energized by adrenalin (epinephrine). Adsorption — attachment of a substance to the surface of another material. Aerobic — needing oxygen to live or function. Aerobots (aerobotics) — aerial (flying) robots. Afferent — in relation to nerves or blood vessels, conducting toward structure or organ; carrying impulses toward a center, as when sensory nerves carry sensory information toward the brain or spinal cord. Affinity (constant) — the strength of the binding of a ligand to a receptor, or the reciprocal of the dissociation rate constant; a measure of the binding energy of a ligand in a receptor; the greater the affinity, the more securely the receptor binds the ligand. AFM — see Atomic Force Microscope. Aft — toward the rear. Agglutinin — an antibody present in the blood that attaches to antigens, such as those found on the surfaces of red blood cells, causing them to clump together; agglutinins cause transfusion reactions when blood from a different group is given. Agonist — in pharmacology, a drug which binds to a receptor and thus stimulates the receptor’s function, possibly mimicking the body’s own regulatory function. Compare antagonist. Albumin — one of a group of simple proteins widely distributed in plant and animal tissues. ALC — airborne lethal concentration. Algorithm — in general, a formula or set of rules for solving a particular problem; in medicine, a set of steps used in diagnosing and treating a disease. Alimentary — pertaining to the digestive tract. Nanomedicine • Volume I 398 Alimentography — a physical description (and mapping) of the human alimentary canal. Aliquot — a portion obtained by dividing the whole into equal parts without a remainder; loosely, any one of two or more samples of something, of the same volume or weight. Alkali — strongly basic substance, especially the metal hydroxides, usually associated with the alkali metals (e.g. sodium and potassium). Allele — one of several alternative forms of a gene occupying a given locus on paired chromosomes. Alloantigen — a substance present in certain individuals that stimulates antibody production in other members of the same species, but not in the original donor. See also antiserum. Allometric scaling laws — in biology, scaling laws that involve a biological variable that is an exponential function of the mass of the organism. Allosteric control — the ability of an interaction at one site of a protein to influence the activity of another site. Allotropic — pertains to the existence of a chemical element or compound in two or more distinct forms with different physical and chemical properties (e.g. diamond and graphite are allotropes of C). Alphanumeric — able to contain both alphabetic and numeric characters. Alveolus (alveolar) — in anatomy, a small cell or cavity; a saclike dilation. Most commonly, a small air sac found at the lowest levels of the branching tube system comprising the lungs. AM — amplitude modulation. Amide — a molecule containing an amine bonded to a carboxyl group (e.g. CONH2). Amide bonds link amino acids in peptides and proteins. Amine — a molecule containing N with a single bond to C and two other single bonds to H or C (but not an amide); the amine group or moiety (e.g. -NH2). Amino acid — a molecule containing both an amine and a carboxylic acid group; there are 20 genetically encoded amino acids in biology. Amniotic — pertaining to the amnion (the innermost of the fetal membranes). Amphipathic — molecular structures which have two surfaces or ends, one of which is hydrophilic and the other of which is hydrophobic. Lipids are amphipathic, and some protein regions may form amphipathic helices with one charged face and one neutral face. Anabolism — the constructive phase of metabolism and the opposite of catabolism; in anabolism, a cell takes from the blood the substances required for repair and growth, building them into a cytoplasm, thus converting nonliving material into the living cytoplasm of the cell. Anaerobic — able to live or function without oxygen. Analgesia — absence of normal sense of pain. Analog — pertaining to data measurable and representable through continuously variable physical quantities. Compare digital. Anaphase — the phase of mitosis (cell division) beginning with centromere division and the movement of chromosomes away from the metaphase plate toward opposite spindle poles. Anaphylactoid-type reaction — a physiological response similar to anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis — the immediate transient kind of immunologic (allergic) reaction characterized by contraction of smooth muscle and dilation of capillaries due to release of pharmacologically active substances (e.g. histamine, bradykinin, serotonin, etc.); a powerful allergic response. Anaphylaxis is classically initiated by the combination of antigen (allergen) with mast cell-fixed, cytophilic antibody (chiefly IgE immunoglobulin), but can also be initiated by relatively large quantities of serum aggregates (antibody-antigen complexes, and other) that seemingly activate complement leading to production of anaphylatoxin. Anastomose — to open one structure into another directly or by connecting channels, usually said of blood vessels, lymphatics, and hollow viscera; to unite by means of an anastomosis, or a connection between formerly separate structures. AND gate — a logical gate that returns a high (1) output if and only if both input signals are high (1). See bit. Anergic — unresponsive. Aneutronic — without neutrons. Angioedema — a condition characterized by development of urticaria (hives) and edematous (swollen with excessive fluid) areas of skin, mucous membranes, or viscera. Angiogenesis — growth of new blood vessels, especially capillaries. Anion — a negatively charged ion. Anisotropic — not isotropic. Anode — the positive pole of an electrical source. ANS — see autonomic nervous system. Antagonist — in pharmacology, a drug that prevents receptor function. Compare agonist. Anterior — the front of the human body, on or nearest the abdominal surface; the front of something. Anteroinferior — in front and below. Basic Capabilities • Glossary 399 Anteroposterior — passing from front to rear. Anthropogenic — caused by human activity. Antibody — a protein (immunoglobulin) produced by B-lymphocyte cells that recognizes a particular foreign antigen, thus triggering the immune response. Antigen — any molecule or foreign substance that, when introduced into the body, provokes synthesis of an antibody, thus stimulating an immune response. Antiserum — serum that contains demonstrable antibody or antibodies specific for one (monovalent) or more (polyvalent) antigens. Aorta — the largest artery in the human body, leading away from the heart. Apheresis — removal of blood from an individual patient, separating certain elements (e.g. red cells, platelets, white cells) for use elsewhere, and reintroducing the remaining components into the patients; also known as cytapheresis, hemapheresis, leukapheresis, pheresis, and plasmapheresis, depending on the type of cells being harvested. Apical — pertaining to the apex (e.g. the point of a cone) of a structure. Apoptosis — an orderly disintegration of eukaryotic cells into membrane-bound particles that may then be phagocytosed by other cells. Aqueous humor — transparent liquid contained in the anterior chamber of the eyeball in front of the lens. Aromatic compounds — in chemistry, ring or cyclic compounds related to benzene, many having a fragrant odor. Arrhythmia — irregularity or loss of rhythm, especially of the heartbeat. Arteriovenous — relating to both arteries and veins. Artery — in anatomy, a blood vessel that sends blood to the tissues from the heart. Aseptic — characterized by the absence of living pathogenic organisms; a state of sterility. Asperities — protruding elements of roughness on a surface, e.g., burrs or spurs. Asphyxia — condition of hypoxia caused by insufficient oxygen intake. Assembler — see molecular assembler. Asymptotic — in geometry and mathematics, a curve that approaches closer and closer, but never quite reaches, another curve or line. Asynchronous —not synchronized in time. atm — atmosphere, a unit of pressure; mean air pressure at Earth’s surface is 1 atmosphere (~1.01 x 10 N/m). Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) — an instrument that uses atomic forces between a sample and a sharp scanning needle tip to image surfaces to molecular accuracy by mechanically probing their surface contours; the AFM measures the tiny upward and downward motions of the tip as the tip is dragged over the surface, producing an atomic-resolution topographic map of the surface. The AFM has also been used to physically manipulate individual molecules. Atom laser — a laserlike device that uses beams of coherent atoms rather than photons. ATP — adenosine triphosphate; has two energy-rich phosphate bonds. Auscultation — the process of listening for sounds w
437 citations
"Modulation Techniques for Communica..." refers methods in this paper
...Inspired by [11], Hydrofluorocarbons can be used as the messenger molecule structure for systematically designing 2 different molecules for n bit logical information representation....
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TL;DR: Results show that distance between the transmitter and receiver has a minor effect on the achievable data rate whereas the energy budget’s effect is significant and it is shown that selecting appropriate threshold and symbol duration parameters are crucial to the performance of the system.
271 citations
TL;DR: Different techniques are proposed to enable the long range interconnection of nano-machines, deployed over distances from a few centimeters up to several meters, according to whether a fixed physical link is required for signal propagation or not, i.e., either wired or wireless communication.
266 citations