Need for approval, children's sharing behavior, and reciprocity in sharing.
TL;DR: The authors investigated the relation between need for approval and sharing, and reciprocity in sharing and found that children with strong need for approach were "inactive" in relation to the candy in the presence of the other child, presumably inhibited by fear of disapproval.
Abstract: 2 questions were investigated about the sharing behavior of children in the course of their interaction with other children: the relation between need for approval and sharing, and reciprocity in sharing. A significant negative relation was found between Ss' (the givers) scores on a measure of need for approval and both the amount of candy they shared and the amount they ate in the presence of another child (the receiver). Children with strong need for approval were "inactive" in relation to the candy in the presence of the other child, presumably inhibited by fear of disapproval. Reciprocity was shown by a positive relation between the number of candies shared and the subsequent sharing of the (use of a crayon by the receiver. Moreover, the difference between the amount of candy givers ate and the amount they shared was significantly related to the receiver's sharing of the crayon. Receivers seemed to respond to the fairness or unfairness of the givers' behavior, retaliating for obvious selfishness. Finally, children's liking for each other also influenced sharing behavior.
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Book•
01 Jan 1962TL;DR: In this article, the authors introduce the principles of estimation and inference: means and variance, means and variations, and means and variance of estimators and inferors, and the analysis of factorial experiments having repeated measures on the same element.
Abstract: CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Design CHAPTER 2: Principles of Estimation and Inference: Means and Variance CHAPTER 3: Design and Analysis of Single-Factor Experiments: Completely Randomized Design CHAPTER 4: Single-Factor Experiments Having Repeated Measures on the Same Element CHAPTER 5: Design and Analysis of Factorial Experiments: Completely-Randomized Design CHAPTER 6: Factorial Experiments: Computational Procedures and Numerical Example CHAPTER 7: Multifactor Experiments Having Repeated Measures on the Same Element CHAPTER 8: Factorial Experiments in which Some of the Interactions are Confounded CHAPTER 9: Latin Squares and Related Designs CHAPTER 10: Analysis of Covariance
25,607Â citations
TL;DR: This chapter discusses design and analysis of single-Factor Experiments: Completely Randomized Design and Factorial Experiments in which Some of the Interactions are Confounded.
24,665Â citations
TL;DR: The notion of complementarity and reciprocity in functional theory is explored in this article, enabling a reanalysis of the concepts of "survival" and "exploitation" and the need to distinguish between complementarity, reciprocity, and the generalized moral norm of reciprocity.
Abstract: The manner in which the concept of reciprocity is implicated in functional theory is explored, enabling a reanalysis of the concepts of "survival" and "exploitation." The need to distinguish between the concepts of complementarity and reciprocity is stressed. Distinctions are also drawn between (1) reciprocity as a pattern of mutually contingent exchange of gratifications, (2) the existential or folk belief in reciprocity, and (3) the generalized moral norm of reciprocity. Reciprocity as a moral norm is analyzed; it is hypothesized that it is one of the universal "principal components" of moral codes. As Westermarck states, "To requite a benefit, or to be grateful to him who bestows it, is probably everywhere, at least under certain circumstances, regarded as a duty. This is a subject which in the present connection calls for special consideration." Ways in which the norm of reciprocity is implicated in the maintenance of stable social systems are examined.
10,277Â citations
"Need for approval, children's shari..." refers background in this paper
...The development of the concept of reciprocity (Piaget 1932), or the learning of a norm of reciprocity (Gouldner 1960),...
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...It has been proposed both that the concepts of fairness and reciprocity develop with age (Piaget 1932) and that a norm of reciprocity guides behavior (Gouldner 1960)....
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...Such behavior may be motivated by a number of factors: learned standards or norms that prescribe sharing (Berkowitz & Daniels 1963; Gouldner 1960); positive effect associated with sharing as a consequence of past learning (Midlarsky & Bryan 1967); the feeling that rewards are deserved or not (Staub 1968)....
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TL;DR: It seems clear that the items in the Edwards Social Desirability Scale would, of necessity, have extreme social desirability scale positions or, in other words, be statistically deviant.
Abstract: It has long been recognized that personality test scores are influenced by non-test-relevant response determinants. Wiggins and Rumrill (1959) distinguish three approaches to this problem. Briefly, interest in the problem of response distortion has been concerned with attempts at statistical correction for "faking good" or "faking bad" (Meehl & Hathaway, 1946), the analysis of response sets (Cronbach, 1946,1950), and ratings of the social desirability of personality test items (Edwards, 19 5 7). A further distinction can be made, however, which results in a somewhat different division of approaches to the question of response distortion. Common to both the Meehl and Hathaway corrections for faking good and faking bad and Cronbach's notion of response sets is an interest in the test behavior of the subject(S). By social desirability, on the other hand, Edwards primarily means the "scale value for any personality statement such that the scale value indicates the position of the statement on the social desirability continuum . . ." (1957, p. 3). Social desirability, thus, has been used to refer to a characteristic of test items, i.e., their scale position on a social desirability scale. Whether the test behavior of 5s or the social desirability properties of items are the focus of interest, however, it now seems clear that underlying both these approaches is the concept of statistical deviance. In the construction of the MMPI K scale, for example, items were selected which differentiated between clinically normal persons producing abnormal te¥Tpfpfiles~snd^cTinically abnormal individuals with abnormal test profiles, and between clinically abnormal persons with normal test profiles and abnormal 5s whose test records were abnormal. Keyed responses to the K scale items tend to be statistically deviant in the parent populations. Similarly, the development of the Edwards Social Desirability Scale (SDS) illustrates this procedure. Items were drawn from various MMPI scales (F, L, K, and the Manifest Anxiety Scale [Taylor, 1953]) and submitted to judges who categorized them as either socially desirable or socially undesirable. Only items on which there was unanimous agreement among the 10 judges were included in the SDS. It seems clear that the items in Edwards SDS would, of necessity, have extreme social desirability scale positions or, in other words, be statistically deviant. Some unfortunate consequences follow from the strict use of the statistical deviance model in the development of-sOcialTtesirSbTBty scales. With items drawn from the MMPI, it is apparent that in addition to their scalability for social desirability the items may also be characterized by their content which,^n a general sense, has pathological implications. When a social desrrabtltty^scale constructed according to this procedure is then applied to a college student population, the meaning of high social desirability scores is not at all clear. When 5s given the Edwards SDS deny, for example, that their sleep is fitful and disturbed (Item 6) or that they worry quite a bit over possible misfortunes (Item 35), it cannot be determined whether these responses are attributable to social desirability or to a genuine absence of such symptoms. The probability of occurrence of the symptoms represented in MMPI items (and incorportated in the SDS)
8,478Â citations
Book•
01 Jan 1932
TL;DR: The Moral Judgment of the Child by Jean Piaget as mentioned in this paper chronicles the evolution of children's moral thinking from preschool to adolescence, tracing their concepts of lying, cheating, adult authority, punishment, and responsibility and offering important insights into how they learn -or fail to learn -the difference between right and wrong.
Abstract: The Moral Judgment of the Child By Jean Piaget The seminal book by this century's most important developmental psychologist chronicles the evolution of children's moral thinking from preschool to adolescence, tracing their concepts of lying, cheating, adult authority, punishment, and responsibility and offering important insights into how they learn -or fail to learn -the difference between right and wrong.
4,620Â citations