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Journal ArticleDOI

Occurrence and control of nitrogenous disinfection by-products in drinking water--a review.

01 Oct 2011-Water Research (Elsevier)-Vol. 45, Iss: 15, pp 4341-4354
TL;DR: A critical review of the occurrence and control of nitrogenous disinfection by-products is provided, finding that the sum of analysed halonitromethanes represented 3-4% of the mass of THMs on a median basis.
About: This article is published in Water Research.The article was published on 2011-10-01. It has received 412 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Chloramination & Haloacetic acids.
Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the formation pathways for nitrogenous disinfection byproducts (N-DBPs) associated with chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, UV, and chloramine disinfection are critically reviewed.
Abstract: Interest in the formation of nitrogenous disinfection byproducts (N-DBPs) has increased because toxicological research has indicated that they are often more genotoxic, cytotoxic, or carcinogenic than many of the carbonaceous disinfection byproducts (C-DBPs) that have been a focus for previous research. Moreover, population growth has forced utilities to exploit source waters impaired by wastewater effluents or algal blooms. Both waters feature higher levels of organic nitrogen, that might serve as N-DBP precursors. Utilities are exploring new disinfectant combinations to reduce the formation of regulated trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids. As some of these new combinations may promote N-DBP formation, characterization of N-DBP formation pathways is needed. Formation pathways for halonitroalkanes, halonitriles, haloamides, and N-nitrosamines associated with chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, UV, and chloramine disinfection are critically reviewed. Several important themes emerge from the review. First, ...

580 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This review summarizes major findings over the last decade related to nitrosamines in drinking water, with a particular focus on N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), because it is among the most widely detected nitrosamine in drinking waters.

442 citations


Cites background from "Occurrence and control of nitrogeno..."

  • ...Coagulation, due to the frequent inclusion of amine-based cationic polymers, typically increases NDMA FP (Bond et al., 2011)....

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  • ...Treated wastewater effluent organic matter (EfOM) generally contains higher levels of NDMA FP than drinking water NOM, including eutrophic water supplies (Bond et al., 2011; Krasner et al., 2008, 2009c; Nawrocki and Andrzejewski, 2011; Russell et al., 2012)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It was calculated that for HANs and HAcAms, the concentrations of known precursors - mainly free amino acids are insufficient to account for the observed concentrations of these N-DBP groups, however, at least in some waters, a significant proportion of CNX and NDMA formation can be explained by known precurors.

222 citations


Cites background from "Occurrence and control of nitrogeno..."

  • ...Interestingly, given conflicting reports on the relative effect on chlorine versus chloramines [19], the HAN formation in chloraminated WWTW effluent was far lower at 0....

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  • ...Despite the recent upsurge in N-DBP research activity, there is still limited data about the occurrence of N-DBPs in drinking water, particularly outside of the US [19]....

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  • ...The ccurrence and control of N-DBPs in drinking water [19] and their ormation mechanisms [20] have both recently been reviewed in he literature....

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  • ...As noted previously, oxidation with chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide or UV irradiation prior to final disinfection with chlorine or chloramines has been implicated in enhanced formation of HANs, HNMs and CNX during water treatment [19]....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The results suggest that permanganate is a better choice than ozone for controlling algae derived pollutants and disinfection byproducts after preozonation.
Abstract: Aqueous suspensions of Microcystis aeruginosa were preoxidized with either ozone or permanganate and then subjected to chlorination under conditions simulating drinking water purification. The impacts of the two oxidants on the algal cells and on the subsequent production of dissolved organic matter and disinfection byproducts were investigated. Preozonation dramatically increased disinfection byproduct formation during chlorination, especially the formation of haloaldehydes, haloacetonitriles, and halonitromethanes. Preoxidation with permanganate had much less effect on disinfection byproduct formation. Preozonation destroyed algal cell walls and cell membranes to release intracellular organic matter (IOM), and less than 2.0% integrated cells were left after preozonation with the dosage as low as 0.4 mg/L. Preoxidation with permanganate mainly released organic matter adsorbed on the cells' surface without causing any damage to the cells' integrity, so the increase in byproduct formation was much less. More organic nitrogen and lower molecular weight precursors were produced in a dissolved phase after preozonation than permanganate preoxidation, which contributes to the significant increase of disinfection byproducts after preozonation. The results suggest that permanganate is a better choice than ozone for controlling algae derived pollutants and disinfection byproducts.

216 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore and summarize recent efforts in the area of titania nanoparticle synthesis, modifications, and application for water treatment purposes, and conclude that Titania nanoparticles are intended to be both supplementary and complementary to the present water treatment technologies through the destruction or transformation of hazardous chemical wastes to innocuous end-products, that is, CO2 and H2O.
Abstract: The presence of both organic and inorganic pollutants in water due to industrial, agricultural, and domestic activities has led to the global need for the development of new, improved, and advanced but effective technologies to effectively address the challenges of water quality. It is therefore necessary to develop a technology which would completely remove contaminants from contaminated waters. TiO2 (titania) nanocatalysts have a proven potential to treat "difficult-to-remove" contaminants and thus are expected to play an important role in the remediation of environmental and pollution challenges. Titania nanoparticles are intended to be both supplementary and complementary to the present water-treatment technologies through the destruction or transformation of hazardous chemical wastes to innocuous end-products, that is, CO2 and H2O. This paper therefore explores and summarizes recent efforts in the area of titania nanoparticle synthesis, modifications, and application of titania nanoparticles for water treatment purposes.

195 citations


Cites background from "Occurrence and control of nitrogeno..."

  • ...Also, trihalomethanes (THMs) have been classified as possible carcinogens to humans [30, 32, 34, 35]....

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References
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The brominated DBPs were the most genotoxic of all but have not been tested for carcinogenicity and highlighted the emerging importance of dermal/inhalation exposure to the THMs, or possibly other DBPs, and the role of genotype for risk for drinking-water-associated bladder cancer.
Abstract: Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when disinfectants (chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, or chloramines) react with naturally occurring organic matter, anthropogenic contaminants, bromide, and iodide during the production of drinking water. Here we review 30 years of research on the occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of 85 DBPs, 11 of which are currently regulated by the U.S., and 74 of which are considered emerging DBPs due to their moderate occurrence levels and/or toxicological properties. These 74 include halonitromethanes, iodo-acids and other unregulated halo-acids, iodo-trihalomethanes (THMs), and other unregulated halomethanes, halofuranones (MX [3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone] and brominated MX DBPs), haloamides, haloacetonitriles, tribromopyrrole, aldehydes, and N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and other nitrosamines. Alternative disinfection practices result in drinking water from which extracted organic material is less mutagenic than extracts of chlorinated water. However, the levels of many emerging DBPs are increased by alternative disinfectants (primarily ozone or chloramines) compared to chlorination, and many emerging DBPs are more genotoxic than some of the regulated DBPs. Our analysis identified three categories of DBPs of particular interest. Category 1 contains eight DBPs with some or all of the toxicologic characteristics of human carcinogens: four regulated (bromodichloromethane, dichloroacetic acid, dibromoacetic acid, and bromate) and four unregulated DBPs (formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, MX, and NDMA). Categories 2 and 3 contain 43 emerging DBPs that are present at moderate levels (sub- to low-mug/L): category 2 contains 29 of these that are genotoxic (including chloral hydrate and chloroacetaldehyde, which are also a rodent carcinogens); category 3 contains the remaining 14 for which little or no toxicological data are available. In general, the brominated DBPs are both more genotoxic and carcinogenic than are chlorinated compounds, and iodinated DBPs were the most genotoxic of all but have not been tested for carcinogenicity. There were toxicological data gaps for even some of the 11 regulated DBPs, as well as for most of the 74 emerging DBPs. A systematic assessment of DBPs for genotoxicity has been performed for approximately 60 DBPs for DNA damage in mammalian cells and 16 for mutagenicity in Salmonella. A recent epidemiologic study found that much of the risk for bladder cancer associated with drinking water was associated with three factors: THM levels, showering/bathing/swimming (i.e., dermal/inhalation exposure), and genotype (having the GSTT1-1 gene). This finding, along with mechanistic studies, highlights the emerging importance of dermal/inhalation exposure to the THMs, or possibly other DBPs, and the role of genotype for risk for drinking-water-associated bladder cancer. More than 50% of the total organic halogen (TOX) formed by chlorination and more than 50% of the assimilable organic carbon (AOC) formed by ozonation has not been identified chemically. The potential interactions among the 600 identified DBPs in the complex mixture of drinking water to which we are exposed by various routes is not reflected in any of the toxicology studies of individual DBPs. The categories of DBPs described here, the identified data gaps, and the emerging role of dermal/inhalation exposure provide guidance for drinking water and public health research.

2,668 citations

01 Jan 1974

1,864 citations


"Occurrence and control of nitrogeno..." refers background in this paper

  • ...to reactions between chlorine and natural organic matter (NOM) in Dutch drinking water (Rook, 1974)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Comparison of chlorine to ozone reactivity towards aromatic compounds (electrophilic attack) shows a good correlation, with chlorine rate constants being about four orders of magnitude smaller than those for ozone.

1,579 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A survey of disinfection byproduct (DBP) occurrence in the United States was conducted at 12 drinking water treatment plants to obtain quantitative occurrence information for new DBPs (beyond those currently regulated and/or studied) for prioritizing future health effects studies.
Abstract: A survey of disinfection byproduct (DBP) occurrence in the United States was conducted at 12 drinking water treatment plants. In addition to currently regulated DBPs, more than 50 DBPs that rated a high priority for potential toxicity were studied. These priority DBPs included iodinated trihalomethanes (THMs), other halomethanes, a nonregulated haloacid, haloacetonitriles, haloketones, halonitromethanes, haloaldehydes, halogenated furanones, haloamides, and nonhalogenated carbonyls. The purpose of this study was to obtain quantitative occurrence information for new DBPs (beyond those currently regulated and/or studied) for prioritizing future health effects studies. An effort was made to select plants treating water that was high in total organic carbon and/or bromide to enable the detection of priority DBPs that contained bromine and/or iodine. THMs and haloacetic acids (HAAs) represented the two major classes of halogenated DBPs formed on a weight basis. Haloacetaldehydes represented the third major cla...

1,443 citations


"Occurrence and control of nitrogeno..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Over 600 DBPs have been reported in drinking water or simulated laboratorydisinfection tests, resulting fromtheuseof chlorine and other disinfectants, notably chloramines, ozone and chlorine dioxide (Krasner et al., 2006)....

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  • ...(Krasner et al., 2006; Weinberg et al., 2002) and 2006e2007 (Krasner et al....

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  • ...Of the three major N-DBP groups captured by existing analytical methodologies eHANs, HAcAms and HNMs - in the 2000e2002 US survey, HANs occurred at the highest concentrations, with median and maximum levels of 3 and 14 mg L respectively, and dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) was the most prevalent species (Table 2) (Krasner et al., 2006; Weinberg et al., 2002)....

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  • ...8 mg L 1 and 120 mg L 1 in the US survey (Goslan et al., 2009; Krasner et al., 2006)....

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  • ...8 mg L ) levels (Krasner et al., 2006) and were thus thought likely to generate relatively high DBP loads....

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