On Limits of Wireless Communications in a Fading Environment when UsingMultiple Antennas
01 Mar 1998-Wireless Personal Communications (Kluwer Academic Publishers)-Vol. 6, Iss: 3, pp 311-335
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the performance of using multi-element array (MEA) technology to improve the bit-rate of digital wireless communications and showed that with high probability extraordinary capacity is available.
Abstract: This paper is motivated by the need for fundamental understanding of ultimate limits of bandwidth efficient delivery of higher bit-rates in digital wireless communications and to also begin to look into how these limits might be approached. We examine exploitation of multi-element array (MEA) technology, that is processing the spatial dimension (not just the time dimension) to improve wireless capacities in certain applications. Specifically, we present some basic information theory results that promise great advantages of using MEAs in wireless LANs and building to building wireless communication links. We explore the important case when the channel characteristic is not available at the transmitter but the receiver knows (tracks) the characteristic which is subject to Rayleigh fading. Fixing the overall transmitted power, we express the capacity offered by MEA technology and we see how the capacity scales with increasing SNR for a large but practical number, n, of antenna elements at both transmitter and receiver.
We investigate the case of independent Rayleigh faded paths between antenna elements and find that with high probability extraordinary capacity is available. Compared to the baseline n = 1 case, which by Shannon‘s classical formula scales as one more bit/cycle for every 3 dB of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) increase, remarkably with MEAs, the scaling is almost like n more bits/cycle for each 3 dB increase in SNR. To illustrate how great this capacity is, even for small n, take the cases n = 2, 4 and 16 at an average received SNR of 21 dB. For over 99% of the channels the capacity is about 7, 19 and 88 bits/cycle respectively, while if n = 1 there is only about 1.2 bit/cycle at the 99% level. For say a symbol rate equal to the channel bandwith, since it is the bits/symbol/dimension that is relevant for signal constellations, these higher capacities are not unreasonable. The 19 bits/cycle for n = 4 amounts to 4.75 bits/symbol/dimension while 88 bits/cycle for n = 16 amounts to 5.5 bits/symbol/dimension. Standard approaches such as selection and optimum combining are seen to be deficient when compared to what will ultimately be possible. New codecs need to be invented to realize a hefty portion of the great capacity promised.
Citations
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TL;DR: Following the discussion of interference temperature as a new metric for the quantification and management of interference, the paper addresses three fundamental cognitive tasks: radio-scene analysis, channel-state estimation and predictive modeling, and the emergent behavior of cognitive radio.
Abstract: Cognitive radio is viewed as a novel approach for improving the utilization of a precious natural resource: the radio electromagnetic spectrum. The cognitive radio, built on a software-defined radio, is defined as an intelligent wireless communication system that is aware of its environment and uses the methodology of understanding-by-building to learn from the environment and adapt to statistical variations in the input stimuli, with two primary objectives in mind: /spl middot/ highly reliable communication whenever and wherever needed; /spl middot/ efficient utilization of the radio spectrum. Following the discussion of interference temperature as a new metric for the quantification and management of interference, the paper addresses three fundamental cognitive tasks. 1) Radio-scene analysis. 2) Channel-state estimation and predictive modeling. 3) Transmit-power control and dynamic spectrum management. This work also discusses the emergent behavior of cognitive radio.
12,172 citations
AT&T1
TL;DR: A generalization of orthogonal designs is shown to provide space-time block codes for both real and complex constellations for any number of transmit antennas and it is shown that many of the codes presented here are optimal in this sense.
Abstract: We introduce space-time block coding, a new paradigm for communication over Rayleigh fading channels using multiple transmit antennas. Data is encoded using a space-time block code and the encoded data is split into n streams which are simultaneously transmitted using n transmit antennas. The received signal at each receive antenna is a linear superposition of the n transmitted signals perturbed by noise. Maximum-likelihood decoding is achieved in a simple way through decoupling of the signals transmitted from different antennas rather than joint detection. This uses the orthogonal structure of the space-time block code and gives a maximum-likelihood decoding algorithm which is based only on linear processing at the receiver. Space-time block codes are designed to achieve the maximum diversity order for a given number of transmit and receive antennas subject to the constraint of having a simple decoding algorithm. The classical mathematical framework of orthogonal designs is applied to construct space-time block codes. It is shown that space-time block codes constructed in this way only exist for few sporadic values of n. Subsequently, a generalization of orthogonal designs is shown to provide space-time block codes for both real and complex constellations for any number of transmit antennas. These codes achieve the maximum possible transmission rate for any number of transmit antennas using any arbitrary real constellation such as PAM. For an arbitrary complex constellation such as PSK and QAM, space-time block codes are designed that achieve 1/2 of the maximum possible transmission rate for any number of transmit antennas. For the specific cases of two, three, and four transmit antennas, space-time block codes are designed that achieve, respectively, all, 3/4, and 3/4 of maximum possible transmission rate using arbitrary complex constellations. The best tradeoff between the decoding delay and the number of transmit antennas is also computed and it is shown that many of the codes presented here are optimal in this sense as well.
7,348 citations
[...]
TL;DR: This paper discusses all of these topics, identifying key challenges for future research and preliminary 5G standardization activities, while providing a comprehensive overview of the current literature, and in particular of the papers appearing in this special issue.
Abstract: What will 5G be? What it will not be is an incremental advance on 4G. The previous four generations of cellular technology have each been a major paradigm shift that has broken backward compatibility. Indeed, 5G will need to be a paradigm shift that includes very high carrier frequencies with massive bandwidths, extreme base station and device densities, and unprecedented numbers of antennas. However, unlike the previous four generations, it will also be highly integrative: tying any new 5G air interface and spectrum together with LTE and WiFi to provide universal high-rate coverage and a seamless user experience. To support this, the core network will also have to reach unprecedented levels of flexibility and intelligence, spectrum regulation will need to be rethought and improved, and energy and cost efficiencies will become even more critical considerations. This paper discusses all of these topics, identifying key challenges for future research and preliminary 5G standardization activities, while providing a comprehensive overview of the current literature, and in particular of the papers appearing in this special issue.
7,139 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors consider the design of channel codes for improving the data rate and/or the reliability of communications over fading channels using multiple transmit antennas and derive performance criteria for designing such codes under the assumption that the fading is slow and frequency nonselective.
Abstract: We consider the design of channel codes for improving the data rate and/or the reliability of communications over fading channels using multiple transmit antennas. Data is encoded by a channel code and the encoded data is split into n streams that are simultaneously transmitted using n transmit antennas. The received signal at each receive antenna is a linear superposition of the n transmitted signals perturbed by noise. We derive performance criteria for designing such codes under the assumption that the fading is slow and frequency nonselective. Performance is shown to be determined by matrices constructed from pairs of distinct code sequences. The minimum rank among these matrices quantifies the diversity gain, while the minimum determinant of these matrices quantifies the coding gain. The results are then extended to fast fading channels. The design criteria are used to design trellis codes for high data rate wireless communication. The encoding/decoding complexity of these codes is comparable to trellis codes employed in practice over Gaussian channels. The codes constructed here provide the best tradeoff between data rate, diversity advantage, and trellis complexity. Simulation results are provided for 4 and 8 PSK signal sets with data rates of 2 and 3 bits/symbol, demonstrating excellent performance that is within 2-3 dB of the outage capacity for these channels using only 64 state encoders.
7,105 citations
TL;DR: Results show that, even though the interuser channel is noisy, cooperation leads not only to an increase in capacity for both users but also to a more robust system, where users' achievable rates are less susceptible to channel variations.
Abstract: Mobile users' data rate and quality of service are limited by the fact that, within the duration of any given call, they experience severe variations in signal attenuation, thereby necessitating the use of some type of diversity. In this two-part paper, we propose a new form of spatial diversity, in which diversity gains are achieved via the cooperation of mobile users. Part I describes the user cooperation strategy, while Part II (see ibid., p.1939-48) focuses on implementation issues and performance analysis. Results show that, even though the interuser channel is noisy, cooperation leads not only to an increase in capacity for both users but also to a more robust system, where users' achievable rates are less susceptible to channel variations.
6,621 citations
References
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Book•
01 Jun 1984
TL;DR: In this article, the Routh-Hurwitz problem of singular pencils of matrices has been studied in the context of systems of linear differential equations with variable coefficients, and its applications to the analysis of complex matrices have been discussed.
Abstract: Volume 2: XI. Complex symmetric, skew-symmetric, and orthogonal matrices: 1. Some formulas for complex orthogonal and unitary matrices 2. Polar decomposition of a complex matrix 3. The normal form of a complex symmetric matrix 4. The normal form of a complex skew-symmetric matrix 5. The normal form of a complex orthogonal matrix XII. Singular pencils of matrices: 1. Introduction 2. Regular pencils of matrices 3. Singular pencils. The reduction theorem 4. The canonical form of a singular pencil of matrices 5. The minimal indices of a pencil. Criterion for strong equivalence of pencils 6. Singular pencils of quadratic forms 7. Application to differential equations XIII. Matrices with non-negative elements: 1. General properties 2. Spectral properties of irreducible non-negative matrices 3. Reducible matrices 4. The normal form of a reducible matrix 5. Primitive and imprimitive matrices 6. Stochastic matrices 7. Limiting probabilities for a homogeneous Markov chain with a finite number of states 8. Totally non-negative matrices 9. Oscillatory matrices XIV. Applications of the theory of matrices to the investigation of systems of linear differential equations: 1. Systems of linear differential equations with variable coefficients. General concepts 2. Lyapunov transformations 3. Reducible systems 4. The canonical form of a reducible system. Erugin's theorem 5. The matricant 6. The multiplicative integral. The infinitesimal calculus of Volterra 7. Differential systems in a complex domain. General properties 8. The multiplicative integral in a complex domain 9. Isolated singular points 10. Regular singularities 11. Reducible analytic systems 12. Analytic functions of several matrices and their application to the investigation of differential systems. The papers of Lappo-Danilevskii XV. The problem of Routh-Hurwitz and related questions: 1. Introduction 2. Cauchy indices 3. Routh's algorithm 4. The singular case. Examples 5. Lyapunov's theorem 6. The theorem of Routh-Hurwitz 7. Orlando's formula 8. Singular cases in the Routh-Hurwitz theorem 9. The method of quadratic forms. Determination of the number of distinct real roots of a polynomial 10. Infinite Hankel matrices of finite rank 11. Determination of the index of an arbitrary rational fraction by the coefficients of numerator and denominator 12. Another proof of the Routh-Hurwitz theorem 13. Some supplements to the Routh-Hurwitz theorem. Stability criterion of Lienard and Chipart 14. Some properties of Hurwitz polynomials. Stieltjes' theorem. Representation of Hurwitz polynomials by continued fractions 15. Domain of stability. Markov parameters 16. Connection with the problem of moments 17. Theorems of Markov and Chebyshev 18. The generalized Routh-Hurwitz problem Bibliography Index.
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Book•
01 Feb 1975
TL;DR: An in-depth and practical guide, Microwave Mobile Communications will provide you with a solid understanding of the microwave propagation techniques essential to the design of effective cellular systems.
Abstract: From the Publisher:
IEEE Press is pleased to bring back into print this definitive text and reference covering all aspects of microwave mobile systems design. Encompassing ten years of advanced research in the field, this invaluable resource reviews basic microwave theory, explains how cellular systems work, and presents useful techniques for effective systems development. The return of this classic volume should be welcomed by all those seeking the original authoritative and complete source of information on this emerging technology. An in-depth and practical guide, Microwave Mobile Communications will provide you with a solid understanding of the microwave propagation techniques essential to the design of effective cellular systems.
9,064 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1968TL;DR: This chapter discusses Coding for Discrete Sources, Techniques for Coding and Decoding, and Source Coding with a Fidelity Criterion.
Abstract: Communication Systems and Information Theory. A Measure of Information. Coding for Discrete Sources. Discrete Memoryless Channels and Capacity. The Noisy-Channel Coding Theorem. Techniques for Coding and Decoding. Memoryless Channels with Discrete Time. Waveform Channels. Source Coding with a Fidelity Criterion. Index.
6,684 citations
23 May 1993
TL;DR: In this article, a new class of convolutional codes called turbo-codes, whose performances in terms of bit error rate (BER) are close to the Shannon limit, is discussed.
Abstract: A new class of convolutional codes called turbo-codes, whose performances in terms of bit error rate (BER) are close to the Shannon limit, is discussed. The turbo-code encoder is built using a parallel concatenation of two recursive systematic convolutional codes, and the associated decoder, using a feedback decoding rule, is implemented as P pipelined identical elementary decoders. >
5,963 citations