On the european union
01 Jan 2010-
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the patterns and effects of departmental oversight across 28 ministries in Estonia, Hungary, Poland and Slovenia in relation to transposition planning, legal review and monitoring of deadlines.
Abstract: The extent to which member states transpose EU directives in a timely fashion is often argued to be strongly associated with the general effectiveness of national bureaucracies. But what kind of institutional solutions ensure better performance? This paper examines the patterns and effects of departmental oversight across 28 ministries in Estonia, Hungary, Poland and Slovenia. In mapping the strength of oversight, it relies on around 90 structured interviews regarding the rules-in-use on transposition planning, legal review and monitoring of deadlines. The analysis of the impact of departmental oversight is based on an original dataset of over 300 directives with transposition deadlines between January 2005 and December 2008.
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TL;DR: Urine concentrations of total BPA differed by race/ethnicity, age, sex, and household income, and these first U.S. population representative concentration data for urinary BPA and tOP should help guide public health research priorities.
Abstract: Of the more than 2,000 high-production volume chemicals that are manufactured in or imported into the United States in amounts of one million pounds or more per year (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2004), many are widely used in consumer products. Among these chemicals are bisphenol A [BPA; 2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)propane; CAS no. 80-05-7] and 4-tertiary-octylphenol [tOP; 4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)phenol; CAS no. 140-66-9]. BPA is used in the manufacture of polycarbonate plastic and epoxy resins, which can be used in impact-resistant safety equipment and baby bottles, as protective coatings inside metal food containers, and as composites and sealants in dentistry [Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction (CERHR) 2007; European Union 2003]. Exposure to BPA is thought to result primarily from ingestion of food containing BPA (Kang et al. 2006; Vandenberg et al. 2007). tOP is both a degradation product of and an intermediate in the manufacture of octylphenol ethoxylates, which are nonionic surfactants used in detergents, pesticide formulations, and other applications (Ying et al. 2002). Exposure to tOP may occur from contact with personal care products, detergents, water, and food containing tOP.
Exposures to tOP can result in developmental and reproductive alterations in aquatic species (Segner et al. 2003) and in laboratory animals (Aydogan and Barlas 2006; Bian et al. 2006; Blake et al. 2004; Nagao et al. 2001; Willoughby et al. 2005). At high doses, BPA demonstrates estrogen-like effects on uterine and prostate organ weights in experimental animals. At doses below the putative lowest observed adverse effect level, exposure to BPA has reportedly resulted in decreased sperm production, increased prostate gland volume, altered development and tissue organization of the mammary gland, altered vaginal morphology and estrous cycles, disruption of sexual differentiation in the brain, and accelerated growth and puberty (Durando et al. 2007; Howdeshell et al. 1999; Kubo et al. 2003; Richter et al. 2007; Rubin et al. 2006; Schonfelder et al. 2002; Timms et al. 2005; vom Saal et al. 1998). At present, the interpretation of the evidence related to the low-dose effects of BPA is a subject of scientific debate (European Union 2003; Goodman et al. 2006; Gray et al. 2004; National Toxicology Program 2001; vom Saal and Hughes 2005).
BPA and tOP are of concern to environmental public health because of the high potential for exposure of humans to these phenols and their demonstrated animal toxicity. Information about the concentrations of these compounds in the general population is important for understanding human exposure to BPA and tOP. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), conducted continuously since 1999 by the National Center for Health Statistics of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), is designed to measure the health and nutritional status of the civilian noninstitutionalized U.S. population ≥ 2 months of age (CDC 2003). The surveys include household interviews; collection of medical histories; standardized physical examinations; and collection of biologic specimens (e.g., blood and urine from participants ≥ 1 and ≥ 6 years of age, respectively) for clinical chemistry testing, nutritional indicators assessments, and assessment of exposure to environmental chemicals (CDC 2005, 2006).
Previously, we analyzed 394 urine samples collected from adult participants of NHANES III, conducted during 1988–1994, to estimate urinary concentrations of total BPA (free plus conjugated species) in selected demographic groups (Calafat et al. 2005). We now report the first estimate of urinary concentrations of total BPA and tOP in NHANES 2003–2004 participants, a representative sample of the noninstitutionalized U.S. population ≥ 6 years of age.
1,590 citations
1,573 citations
TL;DR: A review on interpretabilities suggested by different research works and categorize them is provided, hoping that insight into interpretability will be born with more considerations for medical practices and initiatives to push forward data-based, mathematically grounded, and technically grounded medical education are encouraged.
Abstract: Recently, artificial intelligence and machine learning in general have demonstrated remarkable performances in many tasks, from image processing to natural language processing, especially with the advent of deep learning (DL). Along with research progress, they have encroached upon many different fields and disciplines. Some of them require high level of accountability and thus transparency, for example, the medical sector. Explanations for machine decisions and predictions are thus needed to justify their reliability. This requires greater interpretability, which often means we need to understand the mechanism underlying the algorithms. Unfortunately, the blackbox nature of the DL is still unresolved, and many machine decisions are still poorly understood. We provide a review on interpretabilities suggested by different research works and categorize them. The different categories show different dimensions in interpretability research, from approaches that provide “obviously” interpretable information to the studies of complex patterns. By applying the same categorization to interpretability in medical research, it is hoped that: 1) clinicians and practitioners can subsequently approach these methods with caution; 2) insight into interpretability will be born with more considerations for medical practices; and 3) initiatives to push forward data-based, mathematically grounded, and technically grounded medical education are encouraged.
810 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors use case studies of UK SMEs from a range of sectors to explore the numerous CSR opportunities that present themselves to SMEs, such as developing innovative products and services, serving unserved markets and building new business models.
Abstract: In their book ‘Corporate Social Opportunity’, Grayson and Hodges maintain that ‘the driver for business success is entrepreneurialism, a competitive instinct and a willingness to look for innovation from non-traditional areas such as those increasingly found within the corporate social responsibility (CSR) agenda’. Such opportunities are described as ‘commercially viable activities which also advance environmental and social sustainability’. There are three dimensions to corporate social opportunity (CSO) – innovation in products and services, serving unserved markets and building new business models. While small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have traditionally been presented as non-entrepreneurial in this area, this paper demonstrates how SMEs can take advantage of the opportunities presented by CSR. Using data from 24 detailed case studies of UK SMEs from a range of sectors, the paper explores the numerous CSR opportunities that present themselves to SMEs, such as developing innovative products and services and exploiting niche markets. There are inevitable challenges for SMEs undertaking CSR, but by their very nature they have many characteristics that can aid the adoption of CSR; the paper explores these characteristics and how the utilisation of positive qualities will help SMEs make the most of CSOs. Integrating CSR into the core of a company is crucial to its success. Using the case studies to illustrate key points, the paper suggests how CSR can be built into a company's systems and become ‘just the way we do things’. There are a number of factors that characterise the CSO ‘mentality’ in an organisation, and Grayson and Hodges's book describes seven steps that will move a company in the direction of a ‘want to do’ CSO mentality. This paper adapts these steps for SMEs, and by transferring and building on knowledge from the 24 detailed case studies, it develops a ‘business opportunity’ model of CSR for SMEs.
494 citations
01 Jan 2015
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the first comprehensive assessment of e-waste volumes, their corresponding impacts and management status on a global scale using an internationally-adopted measuring framework that has been developed by the Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development.
Abstract: This monitor aims to present the first comprehensive assessment of e-waste volumes, their corresponding impacts and management status on a global scale. This is measured using an internationally-adopted measuring framework that has been developed by the Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development (Balde et al., 2015). The methodology calculates the amount of e-waste generated from harmonised modelling steps and data sources. The outcomes Show an unprecedented level of accuracy and harmonisation across countries and are very useful for international benchmarking. It is estimated that the total amount e-waste generated in 2014 was 41.8 million metric tonnes (Mt). It is forecasted to increase to 50 Mt of e-waste in 2018.
418 citations
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compared a lifestyle intervention with metformin to prevent or delay the development of Type 2 diabetes in nondiabetic individuals. And they found that the lifestyle intervention was significantly more effective than the medication.
Abstract: Background Type 2 diabetes affects approximately 8 percent of adults in the United States. Some risk factors — elevated plasma glucose concentrations in the fasting state and after an oral glucose load, overweight, and a sedentary lifestyle — are potentially reversible. We hypothesized that modifying these factors with a lifestyle-intervention program or the administration of metformin would prevent or delay the development of diabetes. Methods We randomly assigned 3234 nondiabetic persons with elevated fasting and post-load plasma glucose concentrations to placebo, metformin (850 mg twice daily), or a lifestyle modification program with the goals of at least a 7 percent weight loss and at least 150 minutes of physical activity per week. The mean age of the participants was 51 years, and the mean body-mass index (the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters) was 34.0; 68 percent were women, and 45 percent were members of minority groups. Results The average follow-up was 2.8 years. The incidence of diabetes was 11.0, 7.8, and 4.8 cases per 100 person-years in the placebo, metformin, and lifestyle groups, respectively. The lifestyle intervention reduced the incidence by 58 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 48 to 66 percent) and metformin by 31 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 17 to 43 percent), as compared with placebo; the lifestyle intervention was significantly more effective than metformin. To prevent one case of diabetes during a period of three years, 6.9 persons would have to participate in the lifestyle-intervention program, and 13.9 would have to receive metformin. Conclusions Lifestyle changes and treatment with metformin both reduced the incidence of diabetes in persons at high risk. The lifestyle intervention was more effective than metformin.
17,333 citations
TL;DR: The proposed cut off points, which are less arbitrary and more internationally based than current alternatives, should help to provide internationally comparable prevalence rates of overweight and obesity in children.
Abstract: Objective To develop an internationally acceptable definition of child overweight and obesity, specifying the measurement, the reference population, and the age and sex specific cut off points. Design International survey of six large nationally representative cross sectional growth studies. Setting Brazil, Great Britain, Hong Kong, the Netherlands, Singapore, and the United States. Subjects 97 876 males and 94 851 females from birth to 25 years of age. Main outcome measure Body mass index (weight/height 2 ). Results For each of the surveys, centile curves were drawn that at age 18 years passed through the widely used cut off points of 25 and 30 kg/m 2 for adult overweight and obesity. The resulting curves were averaged to provide age and sex specific cut off points from 2›18 years. Conclusions The proposed cut off points, which are less arbitrary and more internationally based than current alternatives, should help to provide internationally comparable prevalence rates of overweight and obesity in children.
14,792 citations
10,424 citations
Journal Article•
5,717 citations
Book•
01 Jan 2000
TL;DR: The fundamental causes of the obesity epidemic are sedentary lifestyles and high-fat energy-dense diets, both resulting from the profound changes taking place in society and the behavioural patterns of communities as a consequence of increased urbanization and industrialization and the disappearance of traditional lifestyles.
Abstract: This report issues a call for urgent action to combat the growing epidemic of obesity, which now affects developing and industrialized countries alike. Adopting a public health approach, the report responds to both the enormity of health problems associated with obesity and the notorious difficulty of treating this complex, multifactorial disease. With these problems in mind, the report aims to help policy-makers introduce strategies for prevention and management that have the greatest chance of success. The importance of prevention as the most sensible strategy in developing countries, where obesity coexists with undernutrition, is repeatedly emphasized. Recommended lines of action, which reflect the consensus reached by 25 leading authorities, are based on a critical review of current scientific knowledge about the causes of obesity in both individuals and populations. While all causes are considered, major attention is given to behavioural and societal changes that have increased the energy density of diets, overwhelmed sophisticated regulatory systems that control appetite and maintain energy balance, and reduced physical activity. Specific topics discussed range from the importance of fat content in the food supply as a cause of population-wide obesity, through misconceptions about obesity held by both the medical profession and the public, to strategies for dealing with the alarming prevalence of obesity in children. "...the volume is clearly written, and carries a wealth of summary information that is likely to be invaluable for anyone interested in the public health aspects of obesity and fatness, be they students, practitioner or researcher." - Journal of Biosocial Science
5,188 citations